@ -238,7 +238,7 @@ a reserve of 568,817 hectares in 1871,222, removing from the Kabyles the winter
This sequestration was accompanied by the deportation of the Hashem from this plain in the arid steppe of the Hodna, and the raising of an extraordinary war contribution of 27,452,000 F or, putting entire populations at the mercy of usurious loans.
This dispossession benefits, from this phase, the concentration of land capital, by the intervention of bank credit for the benefit of the most solvent, then by the major concessions dedicated to latifundiary under-exploitation:
20,000 ha. to the Société Genevoise, near Setif from 1853; 100,000 to the Algerian Generale in 1865, in the middle of the “Arab Kingdom” against a loan of 100 million F. gold.
It has destructured and impoverished rural society, putting it at the mercy of imposed “purchases” in the future, even though even before the sequestration of 1871, more than 500,000 hectares were taken from it by colonization, 96% by the colonial state.
It has destructured and impoverished rural society, putting it at the mercy of imposed “purchases” in the future, even though even before the sequestration of 1871, more than 500,000 hectares were taken from it by colonization, 96\% by the colonial state.
It has also nationalized or communalized areas of the same order.
218 T.E.F. (1840), pp. 364-65.
@ -253,12 +253,12 @@ It has also nationalized or communalized areas of the same order.
The whole period of colonial possession is indeed for the country, as Dj. Sari pointed out about the famine of 1867-1868, a “demographic disaster” (223).
This was compounded by the loss of life in combat, during the massacres, the destruction, looting and taking committed on a piecemeal basis, as well as the dispossession and living conditions imposed on all Algerians by the system.
If we can debate the number of inhabitants (5 million) to which Sari estimates the population in 1830, the minimum of 3 million for non-Saharan Algeria alone, 6% of whom are urban, is no longer disputed (224).
If we can debate the number of inhabitants (5 million) to which Sari estimates the population in 1830, the minimum of 3 million for non-Saharan Algeria alone, 6\% of whom are urban, is no longer disputed (224).
The enumeration of 1845, from which Kabylies and Aurès escaped, and those of 1851 (three years after the deadly famine of 1848) and 1856, which can still only estimate the population of Greater Kabylia, give respectively 2,028,000, 2,324,000 and 2,302,000.
In 1853, Carette's more reliable estimate attributed to the tribes (excluding the cities) 2,670,410 inhabitants, or in all, more than 2.8 million, after 23 years of occupation and war.
This is a figure very close to that of 1861 (2,732,851), following the murderous campaign of Kabylia.
That is to say the shortfall on the evolution that would have occurred outside this context, which can be estimated, in thirty years, between half a million and a million lives lost.
However, in the same space, there were only 2,653,000 souls and, in 1871, 2,125,052, down 80,000 and then 527,000, at annual rates of -0.58%, during a period that included the repression of the insurrection of 1863-1864, then by 4.37% during the years of famine and epidemics of 1867-1868, this implies an average mortality rate of more than 8% per year.
However, in the same space, there were only 2,653,000 souls and, in 1871, 2,125,052, down 80,000 and then 527,000, at annual rates of -0.58\%, during a period that included the repression of the insurrection of 1863-1864, then by 4.37\% during the years of famine and epidemics of 1867-1868, this implies an average mortality rate of more than 8\% per year.
On this basis, we can make the minimum hypothesis of an excess mortality that has hit, in forty years, between 1.2 and 1.7 million souls, half of the number of 1830, one in five of the Algerian Muslims who lived in the period.
This excess mortality is obviously linked in part to the massacres, the addition of which figures “by tens of thousands the losses ... of the civilian population” (225).
@ -283,7 +283,7 @@ And Napoleon III himself announced one to two years in advance that of colonial
The fact that exports persisted—especially wheat produced by the settlers,” in 1866 and 1867, despite the need to import flour in 1867— shows how scarcity encouraged people to take advantage of rising prices at the expense of matmura reserves.
Cereal harvests fell rapidly, more markedly for barley than for wheat, from 20 million quintals to 11.3, then 10.8, then 8, then 4.4, from 1863 to 1867, before rising (but to just 10.3) in 1868.
The harvests of the settlers, subject to the same climatic hazards, certainly fall by 60%, but those of the Algerians fall by 80%, from 18 to 3.9 million quintals.
The harvests of the settlers, subject to the same climatic hazards, certainly fall by 60\%, but those of the Algerians fall by 80\%, from 18 to 3.9 million quintals.
At the same time, the area sown fell from 2,450,000 hectares to 2.3, then 2.1 and then 2 million hectares in 1866 and 1867 and fell to 1.4 million hectares the following year, climatically favourable:
the lack of arms, due to the loss of life caused by famine and cholera, will render vain in 1868 the good climatic conditions and will prolong the crisis.
@ -295,7 +295,7 @@ This report, which “estimates the number of victims at more than 300,000”, i
The human effects of the first disaster cannot be assessed, due to the lack of data on indigenous demographic movements; we can measure those of the second in the civil status of the cities, only to hold one.
Sari provides (230) a whole series of mortality evolution curves in Medea, Miliana, Mostaganem, Oran, Tlemcen, Mascara, Constantine, during the 1860s, which often show (in Oran, Constantine) a negative natural movement over the entire period, only exacerbated from 1866 to 1868;
sometimes (in Tlemcen) appeared in 1865, return accentuated in 1867 and especially 1868, and persistent, less marked, until 1870. The effects of winters are very marked.
In Miliana, if the balance sheet is, narrowly, negative for the Europeans (but not for the Jews), in 1867 and 1868 it is much more so for the Muslims of the commune, except in 1865 and 1870, with, in 1867 and 1868, 485 deaths then 354 deaths per 3,000 inhabitants (16.2 then 11.8%!) and a growth deficit of 379 then 281 individuals.
In Miliana, if the balance sheet is, narrowly, negative for the Europeans (but not for the Jews), in 1867 and 1868 it is much more so for the Muslims of the commune, except in 1865 and 1870, with, in 1867 and 1868, 485 deaths then 354 deaths per 3,000 inhabitants (16.2 then 11.8\%!) and a growth deficit of 379 then 281 individuals.
The mark of a rural excess mortality at least as serious can be read in the inscription (usually insignificant) of 107 and then 486 unknown and external to the commune who came to take refuge and die there, these two years.
@ -315,22 +315,22 @@ The mark of a rural excess mortality at least as serious can be read in the insc
If the colonial conquest entails, for Algeria, the integration into structures of colonial exploitation in the subjection to a minority of newcomers supposed to represent France, this mutation is not for all that to the advantage of the French people.
During these forty-one years, public expenditure on the French treasury must meet both the costs of the war, the civil expenditure accruing to the metropolitan ministries (religion, justice, public education, finance), and those intended to make up the Algerian deficit.
Over the whole period, the total real participation of the French State in civil expenditure amounted to 192 million gold francs (231) (about 2.7 billion currently) of which 37% (71 million) devoted to filling the deficit of the Algerian budget.
Over the whole period, the total real participation of the French State in civil expenditure amounted to 192 million gold francs (231) (about 2.7 billion currently) of which 37\% (71 million) devoted to filling the deficit of the Algerian budget.
However, this deficit has not tended to be reduced, both because of the tax facilities granted to colonial companies and the growing crushing of the Algerian tax base by looting, destruction, transfers of property, abuses of “Arab taxes” and sanctions taken to impose them on an impoverished people to the point of not being able to pay.
The metropolitan contribution intended to fill it, equal to 45% of local resources in 1836 (2.5 million gold), amounted to 59% of these resources (3.15 million) in 1839, 54% (8.5 million) in 1841 and 101% (12.86 million) in 1844.
In 1863 it accounted for 11% (2,316,000 gold francs) of the forecasts of civil expenditure alone— a quarter of total expenditure — unproductive expenditure devoted solely to administration.
The metropolitan contribution intended to fill it, equal to 45\% of local resources in 1836 (2.5 million gold), amounted to 59\% of these resources (3.15 million) in 1839, 54\% (8.5 million) in 1841 and 101\% (12.86 million) in 1844.
In 1863 it accounted for 11\% (2,316,000 gold francs) of the forecasts of civil expenditure alone— a quarter of total expenditure — unproductive expenditure devoted solely to administration.
However, these expenses represented little cost compared to military expenses, entirely covered by the French budget of the war:
in 1839, the appropriations of the military health service and engineering alone (6,893,038 gold francs) equalled 80% of the total civilian budget, and in 1863, the year of respite from the fighting, as the previous one, the total forecast of army expenditure reached 62,067,553 gold francs (nearly one billion today).
in 1839, the appropriations of the military health service and engineering alone (6,893,038 gold francs) equalled 80\% of the total civilian budget, and in 1863, the year of respite from the fighting, as the previous one, the total forecast of army expenditure reached 62,067,553 gold francs (nearly one billion today).
The profits went to colonial enterprises, primarily financial and commercial, without enriching or equipping Algeria other than to install colonization and drain its production.
The installation of a system of exchange of raw products of colonization, then agricultural for more than 40% of their value, — cereals exported even in 1867, against the import of very little flour! (232) - against elaborate imports, created, at the same time as these profits, a permanent deficit, of the order of 40 to 50 million fr.-or (between 20 and 50 % of exports) by increasing exports from less than 10 million in 1850 to 108 in 1864 and 165 in 1872 and imports from 50 to 130 and then 206 million (233).
The installation of a system of exchange of raw products of colonization, then agricultural for more than 40\% of their value, — cereals exported even in 1867, against the import of very little flour! (232) - against elaborate imports, created, at the same time as these profits, a permanent deficit, of the order of 40 to 50 million fr.-or (between 20 and 50 \% of exports) by increasing exports from less than 10 million in 1850 to 108 in 1864 and 165 in 1872 and imports from 50 to 130 and then 206 million (233).
It was also this deficit that was offset by the contribution of public funds.
The human losses, especially affecting the working class who were unable to pay the replacements they provided in the era of seven-year military service, exceeded 200,000 deaths during these forty years.
The war retained at least until 1871 more than 70,000 metropolitan soldiers each year (73,188 out of 80,862 to the total number in 1844, 70,611 out of 83,870 in 1859, relatively calm years) and many more during offensives and uprisings (in 1835-1836, 1840-1842, 1845-1846) where they were well over 100,000, one for every 30 Algerians, including women and children.
It was the same in 1857, 1863-1865, and even in 1871, before the uprising, when the German army invaded France.
Of these numbers, deaths in ambulances and hospitals, 125,000, or more than 3,000 per year (4%), are approaching, in a population of young adults physically “fit”, twice the average rate of civilian deaths at the time.
For a rate of 1% of the workforce in the quiet years (thus in 1861-1863), or 2% (in 1852-1853), we reach 4% in 1847, 5% in 1838, 10% in 1832-1833 or in 1836-1837, 14% (9,587) and 12% (7,802) in 1840 and 1841, at the beginning of the war against 'Abd el-Qader, and as much in 1851 and 1857 during the Kabylie campaigns, in 1859 and 1871.
Of these numbers, deaths in ambulances and hospitals, 125,000, or more than 3,000 per year (4\%), are approaching, in a population of young adults physically “fit”, twice the average rate of civilian deaths at the time.
For a rate of 1\% of the workforce in the quiet years (thus in 1861-1863), or 2\% (in 1852-1853), we reach 4\% in 1847, 5\% in 1838, 10\% in 1832-1833 or in 1836-1837, 14\% (9,587) and 12\% (7,802) in 1840 and 1841, at the beginning of the war against 'Abd el-Qader, and as much in 1851 and 1857 during the Kabylie campaigns, in 1859 and 1871.
This means that more than 100,000 of these dead were direct victims of the war.
@ -384,14 +384,14 @@ Supporting these theses is only possible by amalgamating reality within broad ca
This is to neglect the observation, in 1955, by the very official “Maspétiol commission”, of the impossibility of increasing the tax burden on the indigenous masses.
In reality, demography owes to a French contribution of hygiene only vaccinations (as much ignored in France as in Algeria in 1830!), here applied late in the face of contagions insensitive to the distinctions between natives and settlers.
The number of doctors, including civil servants, from 1,033 in 1939, still 1,074 in 1943, amounted to only 1,356 in 1945, 1,449 in 1949, 1,629 in 1952 (242 hospitallers), including 916 in Algiers and Oran (one per 900 inhabitants, 64% European), and 713 for the rest of the country (one per 11,000 inhabitants, to 95% Muslims).
The number of doctors, including civil servants, from 1,033 in 1939, still 1,074 in 1943, amounted to only 1,356 in 1945, 1,449 in 1949, 1,629 in 1952 (242 hospitallers), including 916 in Algiers and Oran (one per 900 inhabitants, 64\% European), and 713 for the rest of the country (one per 11,000 inhabitants, to 95\% Muslims).
While J. Marseille asserts that “a subsistence minimum (is) relatively maintained for a large majority of the population”, the years 1941-1942 and 1945-1946 find, in the middle of a period of “economic equilibrium” (because of it?) a demography close to that of the years of famine 1867-1868.
If the general statistics mask it because of under-reporting (in particular of child deaths), urban civil states denounce it, as three quarters of a century earlier:
at Setif (241), in 1942, the mortality rate (4.88%), almost double the already high minimum rate of 1932, 1936, 1948, exceeded the birth rate, in 1945 it equalled it (at 3.9%) despite still undeclared child deaths, with marked peaks in winter and late summer and, in 1945, in the “lean season”, from March to May.
at Setif (241), in 1942, the mortality rate (4.88\%), almost double the already high minimum rate of 1932, 1936, 1948, exceeded the birth rate, in 1945 it equalled it (at 3.9\%) despite still undeclared child deaths, with marked peaks in winter and late summer and, in 1945, in the “lean season”, from March to May.
In Sidi bel-'Abbes (242), according to the declarations, the mortality rate, 4.77% in 1941, 5.32% in 1942, 4.8% in 1945, exceeded in those years that of the birth rate (3.77%, then 4%, then 4.27%), leaving a natural increase deficit of 238, 326 and then 135 individuals;
it compensated for it to the nearest 115 in 1948, with 4.57% against 5.08, between usual rates still of 2.52% in 1951 and 3.72% in 1943, double, despite the youth of the population, those of the settlers of the time.
The same was true in marginal precarious neighbourhoods, such as the Sénéclauze “subdivision”, where the mortality rate remained at 2.8% in 1951, mainly due to the death rate of less than one year per 1,000 births and where life expectancy at birth did not exceed 17 years.
In Sidi bel-'Abbes (242), according to the declarations, the mortality rate, 4.77\% in 1941, 5.32\% in 1942, 4.8\% in 1945, exceeded in those years that of the birth rate (3.77\%, then 4\%, then 4.27\%), leaving a natural increase deficit of 238, 326 and then 135 individuals;
it compensated for it to the nearest 115 in 1948, with 4.57\% against 5.08, between usual rates still of 2.52\% in 1951 and 3.72\% in 1943, double, despite the youth of the population, those of the settlers of the time.
The same was true in marginal precarious neighbourhoods, such as the Sénéclauze “subdivision”, where the mortality rate remained at 2.8\% in 1951, mainly due to the death rate of less than one year per 1,000 births and where life expectancy at birth did not exceed 17 years.
This was also the case in the peri-urban areas of Tlemcen, Miliana and Nedroma, for example (243).
Poor health services and poor rural areas exacerbated these imbalances, even if under-reporting seemed to make them areas of well-being.
In 1947, 1948, 1949 had died at less than a year 245, then 195, then 201 children out of 1,000 born in the prefectures and sub-prefectures of the country (244).
@ -400,13 +400,13 @@ One wonders how much of the difference between the 276,000 Muslim children decla
Similarly, schooling affected very few Muslim school-age children, mostly male and especially urban:
in 1951-1952, 168,940 boys in primary classes and 56,796 girls— 16 per cent of schoolchildren, or 25 per cent and 8.8 per cent of each sex, compared with 10 per cent in 1940.
However, according to Rozet (245), in 1830, “almost all men knew how to read, write, count” and “there were (in Algiers) a hundred schools... where children were taught to read and write the Qur'an, and sometimes a little calculation.”
All the more so, at the end of the colonial period, segregation only exceptionally allowed “Muslim” children access to kindergarten, secondary education (one for every five Europeans), and even complementary courses, where there were 5,567, including 1,625 girls, 0.6% of their age group, compared to 10,111 colonials; At university, at the time of independence, they would be only 5% of students.
All the more so, at the end of the colonial period, segregation only exceptionally allowed “Muslim” children access to kindergarten, secondary education (one for every five Europeans), and even complementary courses, where there were 5,567, including 1,625 girls, 0.6\% of their age group, compared to 10,111 colonials; At university, at the time of independence, they would be only 5\% of students.
As for the technical infrastructures, they were only commensurate with the requirements of colonization and capital. There was of course in 1830 no kilometer of rail in Algeria, — neither in France.
But the 4,372 kilometers, single-track, often narrow-gauge, set up from the 1860s, represented, for four times the surface and a fifth of the population of France only one-fifteenth of the metropolitan railways, based on the colonial minority alone and a tenth of the colonized, in equivalent numbers.
They responded, in their traffic as in their route, only to the need to drain export products to the ports, by linking Morocco and Tunisia by Oran, Algiers, Bône (Annaba) through the colonized plains, and leading to these ports, to Nemours (Ghazaouet), Bougie (Bejaïa) and Philippeville (Skikda), zinc from Zellidja, alfa of the routes of Crampel (Ras-el-Mâ), from Bechar (Kenadza) with coal, and from Djelfa, dates from Touggourt and Biskra, phosphates and iron from Kouif and Ouenza.
All the unprofitable branches from Tlemcen to Beni-Saf, towards Arzew and Mostaganem, even the wheats from Tiaret, especially in the Eastern High Plains between Meskiana, Khenchela and Tebessa, had already been deposited.
On a network with loose meshes, traced (like the Bechar rail for strategic reasons) private road traffic replaced, with 43,078 trucks in 1951, 40% of a car fleet whose 56,391 passenger cars corresponded to the French service rate (1 for 40 souls) only, again for the million Europeans and one Algerian in ten.
On a network with loose meshes, traced (like the Bechar rail for strategic reasons) private road traffic replaced, with 43,078 trucks in 1951, 40\% of a car fleet whose 56,391 passenger cars corresponded to the French service rate (1 for 40 souls) only, again for the million Europeans and one Algerian in ten.
234 \emph{Empire colonial et capitalisme français, histoire d'un divorce}(Colonial empire and french capitalism, history of a divorce), Paris, Albin Michel, 1984.
@ -428,9 +428,9 @@ On a network with loose meshes, traced (like the Bechar rail for strategic reaso
What remains true in the thesis of J. Marseille is the constancy of deficits, except for certain years from one world war to another.
But these are public deficits, and they do not have their origin in spending of general interest, let alone social carried out “for Algeria”.
As we have seen, the “state of equilibrium” linked to the “satisfactory situation of public finances” from 1914 to 1945 is in no way accompanied by “a relatively maintained subsistence minimum for a large majority of the population” (246) which, before 1941-1942 and 1945, experienced urban mortality rates exceeding 4% from 1911 to 1929, 4.5% from 1917 to 1922 and in 1927-1929 and even 5% in 1920-1922.
As we have seen, the “state of equilibrium” linked to the “satisfactory situation of public finances” from 1914 to 1945 is in no way accompanied by “a relatively maintained subsistence minimum for a large majority of the population” (246) which, before 1941-1942 and 1945, experienced urban mortality rates exceeding 4\% from 1911 to 1929, 4.5\% from 1917 to 1922 and in 1927-1929 and even 5\% in 1920-1922.
These rates are linked to malnutrition and lack of care and demographic deficit factors.
This is because, as A. Nouschi notes, only “5 to 10% of the natives (are) inserted in the commercial movement” and that, as Marseille acknowledges (247), the difference with the price paid to the producer matters a lot.
This is because, as A. Nouschi notes, only “5 to 10\% of the natives (are) inserted in the commercial movement” and that, as Marseille acknowledges (247), the difference with the price paid to the producer matters a lot.
In fact, government spending is the result of low private investment, and the assistance provided to it to make profits.
J.Marseille writes it himself, when he shows (248), in 1927, the “(French) winegrowers exasperated by wine imports from Algeria (subject) to infinitely lower tax charges”, subsidized, paying the gasoline of tractors five times less, and that he recalls the absence of social insurance.
@ -441,18 +441,18 @@ Algeria is no less, for this author, with Indochina, one of the two areas of “
In truth, these “good deals” were made at the expense of the Algerian people, and for the benefit of a very small minority of colonial owners and the large French capitalist companies, first mining or commercial.
The clearest is the transfer of land, from the Warnier law (1873) carried out more by forced transactions (for debts, mortgages etc.) than by official attributions, often for the benefit of absentee urban businessmen.
In the 1950s, this transfer left in the hands of 20,000 owners, 2,700,000 hectares, a third (the best) of the country's arable land, half to a tenth of them.
99% of Algerian owners share the remaining two-thirds and are thus reduced either to insufficient exploitation or to daily work, possibly complementary. This is the major factor in the rural exodus.
99\% of Algerian owners share the remaining two-thirds and are thus reduced either to insufficient exploitation or to daily work, possibly complementary. This is the major factor in the rural exodus.
In the years preceding the Second World War and in those that followed it, the very slowdown in production and the difficulties due to the crisis and then the war led to a decrease in French exports and, consequently, a reduction or disappearance of the Algerian balance deficit.
However, this deficit, already present and increased, as we have seen, from 28 to 90 million gold francs from 1863 to 1873, rose from 34 to 78 billion francs in current terms from 1950 to 1954, toward France, but also, increasingly, toward other countries.
From 1950 to 1953 the metropolitan budget paid Algeria 286 billion francs (about 40 billion francs today), of which, according to the Maspétiol commission (251), in 1953 “50%... seem to be considered as providing aid to Algeria.”
Thus, in 1953, out of 93 billion, 62 billion related to operating expenditure, two-thirds military, investment credits (35.7 billion) used, for 6 billion, to repay previous loans, and for 27 billion, to subsidize, by 6% of expenditure, colonial enterprises or by 27%, to lend them.
From 1950 to 1953 the metropolitan budget paid Algeria 286 billion francs (about 40 billion francs today), of which, according to the Maspétiol commission (251), in 1953 “50\%... seem to be considered as providing aid to Algeria.”
Thus, in 1953, out of 93 billion, 62 billion related to operating expenditure, two-thirds military, investment credits (35.7 billion) used, for 6 billion, to repay previous loans, and for 27 billion, to subsidize, by 6\% of expenditure, colonial enterprises or by 27\%, to lend them.
However, they benefited from “advantages already granted in tax matters” the importance of which the Maspétiol report stressed.
The tax burden rate, from 33% in France, fell for them to 19% (16.4% in metallurgy against 28.4% ; 16.2% in texties against 26.2%);
in the face of taxes on property income and agricultural profits further reduced from 6% of the budget in 1949 to 1.8% in 1953, taxes on wages were doubled, income tax left at constant rates, indirect taxes increased.
It was to prolong the constant tendency to “make the poor pay” since the time, a century earlier, when Muslims, from 1863 to 1872, had provided in “Arab tax” and war contributions, 28% of the Algerian budget, against 2.8% to the beneficiaries of colonization or that, in 1890, when “Arab taxes” provided 3/4 of direct contributions (15% of budgetary resources) when settlers were still exempt from property tax.
In the Algerian GDP of 1953, the share of profits was 47% (239 billion francs current), that of wages only 34% (160 billion), and the proportion of accumulated capital reinvested on the spot, 52%:
The tax burden rate, from 33\% in France, fell for them to 19\% (16.4\% in metallurgy against 28.4\% ; 16.2\% in texties against 26.2\%);
in the face of taxes on property income and agricultural profits further reduced from 6\% of the budget in 1949 to 1.8\% in 1953, taxes on wages were doubled, income tax left at constant rates, indirect taxes increased.
It was to prolong the constant tendency to “make the poor pay” since the time, a century earlier, when Muslims, from 1863 to 1872, had provided in “Arab tax” and war contributions, 28\% of the Algerian budget, against 2.8\% to the beneficiaries of colonization or that, in 1890, when “Arab taxes” provided 3/4 of direct contributions (15\% of budgetary resources) when settlers were still exempt from property tax.
In the Algerian GDP of 1953, the share of profits was 47\% (239 billion francs current), that of wages only 34\% (160 billion), and the proportion of accumulated capital reinvested on the spot, 52\%:
the repatriation of the rest (46 billion that year) and the amount of the trade deficit represented the exodus of capital offset by public funds.
@ -499,7 +499,7 @@ The number of Algerian deaths from the war of independence is uncertain.
Even if it is probably between the million and a half affirmed by the F.L.N. and the 330,000 to which the official French counts reduce it, anxious not to count the corpses of the mass graves that are discovered from time to time.
Disagreements between the results of the 1954, 1960 and 1966 counts and the natural increase balances allowed by the declarations must be read in view of the accentuation of the under-reporting of births and deaths.
This is evident for births, the rate of which from 1950 to 1955 was constantly between 4.2 and 4.4 per cent and rose to almost 5 per cent after 1962.
It exists all the more so for deaths whose reported number, during these eight years, rises, above the 115,000 of 1954 as of 1963, up to 140,000 to 154,000 after 1956, i.e. an annual excess mortality of 0.4 to 0.5% (already more than the official French figure).
It exists all the more so for deaths whose reported number, during these eight years, rises, above the 115,000 of 1954 as of 1963, up to 140,000 to 154,000 after 1956, i.e. an annual excess mortality of 0.4 to 0.5\% (already more than the official French figure).
The 1960 count also found 168,000 fewer inhabitants than would result from the reported natural increase, while emigration to France had become scarcer, and the 1966 census another deficit of 160,000, mainly due to the years 1960-1962, if only because of the return of refugees in 1963-1964.
We can thus consider as likely the loss of at least 600,000 Algerian human lives, not counting the French killed, due to the obstinacy of French colonial capital, especially after the discoveries of Saharan hydrocarbons, to keep Algeria.
This is much more than just the victims of the fighting.
@ -539,10 +539,10 @@ From the launch, in 1959, of the “Constantine Plan”, the expenses related to
This new orientation is based on the observation, affirmed by the Ministry of Algeria in 1958, that “the natural limits of agriculture lead to the recognition that industry must be the main basis for expansion” (258).
First of all, it leads to the acceleration of the search for and production of hydrocarbons.
Thus the Gaullist regime created the public company E.L.F./Algérie, and in 1958-1859 only, 188 billion (old) were invested, which allowed in two years the exploitation of deposits that could produce 20 million tons annually.
Outside this field, it essentially leads, with few exceptions (Berliet, Michelin), to public investment by national companies (Renault), but above all to the first massive capital expenditure by the State, which had increased, between 1950 and 1955, only from 14 to 25 billion 259 (from 27 to 18% of the civil public funds transferred).
Outside this field, it essentially leads, with few exceptions (Berliet, Michelin), to public investment by national companies (Renault), but above all to the first massive capital expenditure by the State, which had increased, between 1950 and 1955, only from 14 to 25 billion 259 (from 27 to 18\% of the civil public funds transferred).
These expenses reinforce the strategic densification of the road network by the military, multiply emergency or other “cities” (which “welcome” Algerian families displaced from 7 to 8 people in “housing” of one to two rooms);
above all, they act as substantial support for private investors.
Faced with the stated objective of increasing, by creating 875,000 non-agricultural jobs, the standard of living by 5%, and the official appeal to “industrialists (that) Algeria (their) offers (in addition to this expected expansion of the market) an aid to the establishment of (their) companies” (260) provided by the French budget, “all the reports noted evasions of savings” (261).
Faced with the stated objective of increasing, by creating 875,000 non-agricultural jobs, the standard of living by 5\%, and the official appeal to “industrialists (that) Algeria (their) offers (in addition to this expected expansion of the market) an aid to the establishment of (their) companies” (260) provided by the French budget, “all the reports noted evasions of savings” (261).
Public investment has therefore played well, at this time to compensate for the lack of private financing and nevertheless allow the formation of profits for the most part repatriated.
Mendès-France declaring, on April 11, 1961: “Algeria costs us (...) more than it brings us” (262) silenced these returns to private capital.
The fact remains that, for the first time in the history of colonization, probably in the illusion of retaining its use, the French colonial capitalist state created in Algeria, and bequeathed to it in 1962 with independence, a productive equipment, although conceived exclusively as integrated into the needs of French capitalism.
@ -560,9 +560,9 @@ The fact remains that, for the first time in the history of colonization, probab
\section{1980-1998. Towards structural adjustment through Islamist terrorism}
It is a productive apparatus created for Algerian national needs, offering four times more jobs than before independence and on the way to a largely integrated structure, which the opening to the “market” neutralizes from 1978-1980 before sterilizing and eroding it, again destructuring Algerian society.
During the previous eighteen years, during which Algeria had hardly remained linked to international capitalism except by the exchange of 95 to 98% of its hydrocarbons for imports, mainly of equipment (for more than a third) and (for all that) of raw materials and semi-finished products, the production of energy (and above all electricity) had been multiplied by 7.
During the previous eighteen years, during which Algeria had hardly remained linked to international capitalism except by the exchange of 95 to 98\% of its hydrocarbons for imports, mainly of equipment (for more than a third) and (for all that) of raw materials and semi-finished products, the production of energy (and above all electricity) had been multiplied by 7.
Industrial production, especially public production, diversified, had seen its value more than tripled and satisfy for more than half its own demand, that of agriculture, construction and consumers; that of agriculture, despite the decline of the vine with the closure of its subsidized market, had remained constant, but for a population almost doubled and with increased requirements.
Oil exports ($8 billion) accounted for only 15% of GDP, quadrupled since independence, which represented per capita, 2.3 times that of Tunisia, 4 times that of Morocco.
Oil exports ($8 billion) accounted for only 15\% of GDP, quadrupled since independence, which represented per capita, 2.3 times that of Tunisia, 4 times that of Morocco.
The distribution of creations, planned to rebalance between regions and between rural and urban areas, employment and settlement, implied the acceptance of additional costs increased by the demand for housing and social needs: primary school enrolment increased to 75 per cent (60 per cent for girls), average enrolment to 40 per cent, secondary school to 25 per cent.
It is by giving the classic weapon of colonial control, the debt, contracted to respond by importing to shortages born of increased demand and turn a “non-competitive” production towards a diversification of exports that Algeria has reopened itself to the domination of big capital.
10
20 African independencies and communism (1960-1998), Francis Arzalier.txt
@ -103,14 +103,14 @@ The World Bank's recent diagnoses are clear with regard to Africa:
even more than before, African economies and African states are crushed by debt to the point of being able to dream of an independent practice.
Despite sluggish growth in commodity exports and debt reduction agreements, the situation in sub-Saharan African countries continued to deteriorate.
Their debt represents on average 170% of their exports (1,000% in Mozambique, 600% in Côte d'Ivoire).
Their debt represents on average 170\% of their exports (1,000\% in Mozambique, 600\% in Côte d'Ivoire).
According to the “debt tables” published by the World Bank, out of 40 heavily indebted countries, 33 are in sub-Saharan Africa. The Maghreb is not much better off:
in Algeria, the debt-to-export revenue ratio is 308%, in Morocco 247%, in Egypt 214%.
in Algeria, the debt-to-export revenue ratio is 308\%, in Morocco 247\%, in Egypt 214\%.
Many experts from the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, can even afford the luxury of recognizing that many of these debts can never be repaid:
the African continent and its peoples must remain crushed by the straitjacket of debt.
Debt is for the great financial and political powers more political weapon than source of profit:
sub-Saharan Africa's total debt ($223 billion) barely exceeds 10% of the global total.
sub-Saharan Africa's total debt ($223 billion) barely exceeds 10\% of the global total.
But it makes it possible to impose on African governments the “structural adjustment plans”, that is to say to control their political, economic and social orientations (austerity for public services and privatization of wealthes).
Better: this grip of world capitalism is stronger in Africa in 1998 than in the colonial era.
Most of the villages of the AOF in 1930 lived in quasi-communal autarky, and felt the weight of colonial authority only through forced labor and taxation.
@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ However, this image of Africa, even if it was born of good feelings, is false, i
Certainly, hunger is a very real scourge, which has wiped out tens of thousands of Africans over the past ten years, and is still preparing to do so;
Admittedly, this endemic hunger sometimes originates from climatic causes (in the Sahel where the desert extends), and even more demographic (population and herds too numerous for fragile grazing areas).
But famine in Africa is only contingent; it occurs, against a backdrop of difficulties, when society is disturbed by an armed conflict, which prohibits seeds and crops, transport and food storage.
Overall agricultural production is increasing, albeit insufficiently, but promising: according to the F.A.O., cereal production in Africa grew by 1.95% per year from 1961 to 1990, and cereal yield by 32 per cent between 1986 and 1990.
Overall agricultural production is increasing, albeit insufficiently, but promising: according to the F.A.O., cereal production in Africa grew by 1.95\% per year from 1961 to 1990, and cereal yield by 32 per cent between 1986 and 1990.
All the major famines of recent years have been linked to military conflicts, external or internal, to the destruction of agricultural and industrial potential, and to the displacement of population that were the result:
this was the case in Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Chad, Mozambique, etc.
@ -228,7 +228,7 @@ Elf was able to finance in 1997 the militias that took power in Brazzaville, at
We cannot highlight everything about this “logic of the capitalist world market” in the current African trouble.
Let us conclude this overview with an enlightening example, most recently highlighted by the report published on 26/11/97 of the W.H.O. and the United Nations on AIDS.
In sub-Saharan Africa, 7.4% of men and women between the ages of 15 and 49 are infected with the virus. There are 2.4 million of them in South Africa, 25 to 30% of adults in Botswana.
In sub-Saharan Africa, 7.4\% of men and women between the ages of 15 and 49 are infected with the virus. There are 2.4 million of them in South Africa, 25 to 30\% of adults in Botswana.
Everywhere, life expectancy, which had increased by nearly 15 years from 1960 to 1990, is falling again.
2
21 North American interventions in Latin America, Paco Pena.txt
@ -612,7 +612,7 @@ Calles exerted a harsh repression and counted with the support of the Yankee tro
North American investments were estimated at $15 million in Haiti.
Aside from interests in sugar, transportation and ports, Yankee investors owned 50% of the shares in the Haitian National Bank.
Aside from interests in sugar, transportation and ports, Yankee investors owned 50\% of the shares in the Haitian National Bank.
One of the most important businessmen was Roger Farharm. Vice-president of the National Bank, of the Railroad of Haiti, he was also an official of the National City Bank.
48
22 United States, the uncomplete dream. The long march of African Americans, Robert Pac.txt
@ -25,13 +25,13 @@ Today, there are no more large national and structured black organizations, no m
Since the 70s, the benefit of hard-won legislation, officially intended to end racial exclusion, has been nullified by a government strategy of physical encirclement and economic isolation leading to a real decadence of social life in the ghettos.
This strategy, inaugurated by Ronald Reagan in 1980, and continued by his successors Bush and Clinton, has severely cut budgets for welfare, education, health, housing construction and urban renewal.
African-Americans have borne massive costs of this dismantling. 35% of black families are now below the poverty line (compared to 6% of white families).
On average, the income of a black family is 58% of that of a white family, a lower figure than in 1967!
African-Americans have borne massive costs of this dismantling. 35\% of black families are now below the poverty line (compared to 6\% of white families).
On average, the income of a black family is 58\% of that of a white family, a lower figure than in 1967!
The official unemployment rate for African-Americans is twice the national average rate, the method of which is questionable (5.5%!).
In reality, that of blacks must be around 25%.
The official unemployment rate for African-Americans is twice the national average rate, the method of which is questionable (5.5\%!).
In reality, that of blacks must be around 25\%.
For Black youth aged 16 to 19, the rate is 57%. In 1967, it was 26.5%! Today, in Harlem, 75% of young people are unemployed.
For Black youth aged 16 to 19, the rate is 57\%. In 1967, it was 26.5\%! Today, in Harlem, 75\% of young people are unemployed.
Further intensifying the war on the poor, Reagan cut the duration of unemployment relief in half: 13 weeks instead of 26.
Life expectancy for a black man is 69 years compared to 76 for a white man. The infant mortality rate among blacks is 16.5 per thousand compared to 8.1 for whites.
@ -76,12 +76,12 @@ There is no question, of course, of parking blacks in “townships” surrounded
But these "townships" nevertheless exist in the very center of the major cities of the United States: they are the “downtowns”, the ghettos, which can be surrounded and gridded in a few hours by the police and the army.
The ghettos are now abandoned to African-Americans by the rich and petty white bourgeois who can sleep soundly in their pretty cottages in the polished and self-defended suburbs.
The lockdown since 1972 has achieved what slavery and segregation had not been able to achieve completely, that is, the surveillance, without watchtowers or barbed wire, of 97% of black Americans.
The lockdown since 1972 has achieved what slavery and segregation had not been able to achieve completely, that is, the surveillance, without watchtowers or barbed wire, of 97\% of black Americans.
The ghetto was cut off from the official economy and the rest of society.
Habitat degradation is compounded by high crime, high mortality rates, poor social and educational structures and chronic unemployment.
It is a micro-society apart, a closed world with specific structures and language.
Violence, family dislocation (56.2% of families are headed by a single woman), alcoholism, drugs lead to inertia or despair that leads to suicidal revolts.
Violence, family dislocation (56.2\% of families are headed by a single woman), alcoholism, drugs lead to inertia or despair that leads to suicidal revolts.
The confinement of African-Americans in ghettos falls under Article II, § C of the International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, ratified by the United States, which states:
“In this Convention, genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such:
@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ The weapon of drugs is still used today against those colonized inside their met
In the past, marijuana first, opium, morphine, heroin and cocaine were tolerated among blacks, or at least repression was done in such a way as not to destroy the general level of trafficking.
Today, Harlem, for example, has eight times more drug addicts than the rest of the New York metropolitan area.
Currently, 40% of drug-related crimes. For cocaine and heroin, African-Americans in Harlem substituted “crack”, this cheap derivative of cocaine with violent and immediate effects.
Currently, 40\% of drug-related crimes. For cocaine and heroin, African-Americans in Harlem substituted “crack”, this cheap derivative of cocaine with violent and immediate effects.
This drug, which acts on the brain, produces euphoria followed by depression, irritability, anxiety and paranoid psychosis.
Then come pulmonary emphysema and an overdose can cause a heart attack, an increase in heart rate and blood pressure;
@ -133,15 +133,15 @@ the addict has hallucinations, he has the impression that his body is traversed
Drugs are everywhere in the ghettos. The rapid increase in the supply of “crack” caused the price of the sachet to fall from $40 in 1988 to a price of between $3 and $10 today.
This decline has led to an influx of consumers with low livelihoods. In addition, this trafficked cocaine, consumable without a syringe, keeps away the fear of AIDS.
In New York State, more than one-third of crack users are African-Americans, although they make up only 14.6% of the state's total population.
In New York State, more than one-third of crack users are African-Americans, although they make up only 14.6\% of the state's total population.
African-Americans account for 50% of the estimated 1.2 million people who inject drugs inject drugs, of whom about 300,000 have AIDS.
In the state of Georgia, African-American males account for 8 in 10 (79%) of cases attributable solely to intravenous drug use.
While they account for 43% of all AIDS cases in Detroit, they accounted for 76% of all AIDS cases due to intravenous drug use in April 1987.
African-Americans account for 50\% of the estimated 1.2 million people who inject drugs inject drugs, of whom about 300,000 have AIDS.
In the state of Georgia, African-American males account for 8 in 10 (79\%) of cases attributable solely to intravenous drug use.
While they account for 43\% of all AIDS cases in Detroit, they accounted for 76\% of all AIDS cases due to intravenous drug use in April 1987.
African-Americans make up a disproportionate percentage (27%) of all AIDS cases recorded by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta.
African-Americans make up a disproportionate percentage (27\%) of all AIDS cases recorded by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta.
African-American and Hispanic children make up approximately 80% of all children infected with the AIDS virus in the United States.
African-American and Hispanic children make up approximately 80\% of all children infected with the AIDS virus in the United States.
Two-thirds of all black AIDS cases are concentrated in New York, New Jersey and Florida. Blacks are three times more likely to contract AIDS than whites.
@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ The miserable living conditions of blacks and also the lack of immune defenses o
One in five black children born in the ghetto today is a drug addict. He is even before he is born.
It becomes so during pregnancy, in the womb of its mother who takes drugs, using “crack” most often.
“Drug addiction has direct and multiple effects on pregnancy. One in ten children born in Harlem is underweight than average.
At the maternity ward of the Grand Hospital in Harlem, out of 3,000 thousand births, the rate of drugged infants is 15%. They are called “cocaine babies.”
At the maternity ward of the Grand Hospital in Harlem, out of 3,000 thousand births, the rate of drugged infants is 15\%. They are called “cocaine babies.”
Two months premature, they weigh 600 grams less than other children at this stage and are three times more likely to die in their early years.
In the same institution, the rate of miscarriages is twice as high as the average.” (317)
@ -276,7 +276,7 @@ It was written by you and for you and those of your kind, and any man who was no
The fruit of a long history, American racism does not lie only in the minds of whites, it is institutionalized in all the workings of American society.
And particularly in the criminal justice system. The most obvious sign of this racism is the racial composition of this system.
In a country where 20% of citizens are of non-European origin, the criminal justice system is composed of 95% of people of European origin.
In a country where 20\% of citizens are of non-European origin, the criminal justice system is composed of 95\% of people of European origin.
“In the most usual case, the black person suspected of having committed a crime is arrested by a white police officer, presented to a white judge, a white prosecutor and a white jury, in a court whose proceedings are recorded by white clerks.
The usual place of the black in this judicial system in the hands of the whites is the box of the accused.
@ -284,7 +284,7 @@ Such a situation convinces him that justice is an instrument of oppression in th
This can only result in discrimination in prosecution and convictions.
And even when whites acting in the justice system have no land biases, the cultural and class barriers that stand between them and the defendants invariably place the latter at a disadvantage. ” (328)
As a result of this racist justice, nearly half (48%) of the 1,630,940 people who inhabit penitentiaries, state and municipal prisons are African-Americans, while they represent only 12% of the population.
As a result of this racist justice, nearly half (48\%) of the 1,630,940 people who inhabit penitentiaries, state and municipal prisons are African-Americans, while they represent only 12\% of the population.
The same proportion of blacks are among the 3,350 death row inmates currently on “death row.”
Blacks are imprisoned in the United States much more than in South Africa during the apartheid era: 3,109 per 100,000 compared to 729 in South Africa (329).
@ -323,7 +323,7 @@ How can we not see in this policy of sidelining the society of African-Americans
More than half of the deaths of prisoners in the northeastern states of the United States in 1991 were caused by AIDS, according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Nationally, 28 per cent of the 1,863 prisoners who died in custody were victims of AIDS.
In New Jersey, 69% of inmate deaths were AIDS-related, as were 66% in New York, 44% in Florida, 33% in Maryland, and 30% in North Carolina and Massachusetts (330).
In New Jersey, 69\% of inmate deaths were AIDS-related, as were 66\% in New York, 44\% in Florida, 33\% in Maryland, and 30\% in North Carolina and Massachusetts (330).
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia, reports that AIDS cases are on the rise in U.S. prisons.
5,279 prisoners were infected with AIDS in 1994, or 5.2 cases per 1,000 prisoners, almost six times the rate in the general adult population of 0.9 per 1,000 (331).
@ -386,7 +386,7 @@ Many prisoners reported intimidation of visitors, including threats by guards ag
Nearly 40 per cent of the prisoners interviewed saw detainees receiving psychiatric treatment or medication against their will.
32 percent reported incidents of verbal abuse and racial slurs, food spoilage, extortion, “strip” searches, and death threats —including those perpetrated by guards at the Los Angeles County Jail who were members of the Ku Klux Klan.
90% of the prisoners surveyed confirmed the physical brutality. 70% of them said they had them at least once a month.
90\% of the prisoners surveyed confirmed the physical brutality. 70\% of them said they had them at least once a month.
Prison staff use their fists, feet, electric batons, batons, tear gas, fire hoses, electric torches, broom handles, rubber hoses and rifles firing wooden bullets.
About 100 respondents testified that they had witnessed the beating of handcuffed prisoners.
@ -402,7 +402,7 @@ The guards call this “dog fights” or “cock fights”.
Detainees are also beaten in their cells or transferred to security facilities to beat them out of the sight of other prisoners.
Other detainees complained of being forced to perform arduous tasks while sick or infirm.
Only 10% of the detainees interviewed said they had not witnessed such brutality.
Only 10\% of the detainees interviewed said they had not witnessed such brutality.
The main motivations of prison staff to commit this brutality are their racial and political prejudices.
@ -411,7 +411,7 @@ Jailhouse lawyers are the most frequent target of prison staff.
"Prison lawyers" help other prisoners, many of whom are illiterate, draft their complaints and appeal procedures against prisons and courts.
As the internal system in all prisons is arbitrary, discriminatory and inconsistent, most prisoners have constant conflicts with the administration and the judiciary.
Because of this, guards and administrators have a usual policy of “isolating” lawyers from prisons.
Finally, 30% designated "political prisoners" as a target of the prison administration.
Finally, 30\% designated "political prisoners" as a target of the prison administration.
The most frequently targeted group after “prison lawyers” is African-Americans. There were frequent complaints of “selective discipline based on racial prejudice.”
There was criticism of the racist nature of the criminal justice system, which throws a disproportionate number of non-white people in jail for longer and harsher sentences (e.g., the death penalty).
@ -439,7 +439,7 @@ Racism also plays its role in the application of the death penalty. This is a ho
A lottery where some have more “chances” than others to “win”. These are the poor, African-Americans and members of other ethnic minorities.
There are now 3,350 death row inmates in the United States waiting for punishment on “death row,” sometimes for more than 10 years, and their number is growing by 250 people every year.
And 48% of these convicts are blacks who, let us remember, constitute only 12% of the population.
And 48\% of these convicts are blacks who, let us remember, constitute only 12\% of the population.
From 1967 to 1977, there were no executions in the United States, although death sentences continued to be handed down during this period.
In 1972, the Supreme Court declared the current death penalty law unconstitutional and null and void, based on the fact that most of the laws applied up to that date constituted “cruel and unusual” punishment, in violation of the 8th and 14th Amendments to the United States Constitution.
@ -458,8 +458,8 @@ In Florida, blacks responsible for murdering whites were 40 times more likely to
Most of the blacks who are on “death row” have been charged with the murder of a white man.
“Never has a white person been executed for raping a black woman when 54 percent of blacks who raped white women were executed between 1930 and 1967 and 89 percent of the men executed for rape were black.” (333)
Let us add that in the United States, on a general level, the death penalty particularly affects the poor, 60% of convicts are unemployed at the time of their arrest; 65% are non-specialty;
50% have not completed the 1st cycle studies; 90% are too poor to afford a lawyer.
Let us add that in the United States, on a general level, the death penalty particularly affects the poor, 60\% of convicts are unemployed at the time of their arrest; 65\% are non-specialty;
50\% have not completed the 1st cycle studies; 90\% are too poor to afford a lawyer.
In California, over an eight-year period, 42 percent of workers convicted of first-degree murder were sentenced to death, while for "white-collar" workers, the proportion was 5 percent.
It should be noted that the death penalty has no deterrent power: Canada has abolished the death penalty and the murder rate has decreased in this country; Florida and Texas have reinstated the death penalty and the murder rate has continued to rise.
2
23 Centenary of a genocide in Cuba. Weyler's « reconcentration », Jean Laïlle.txt
@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ An additional 2,781 were transported.
This document dates the duration of this inhuman grouping begun in mid-1896, imposed militarily in October, but became untenable at the end of 1897, because it was still necessary to rotate sugar production, which was in free fall.
Not to mention that the State did not sufficiently remunerate the transport of military units that landed massively as reinforcements throughout 1897.
The Matanzas Railway had invoiced 117,398 pesos for 1896 for military transport and had received only 77,816 pesos, the difference being considered free services for the benefit of the State.
This company nevertheless managed to distribute to its shareholders a dividend of 2% while having received, housed and transported 4,322 soldiers disembarked from Spain in 1896 alone at Régla, the entrance to the port of Havana.
This company nevertheless managed to distribute to its shareholders a dividend of 2\% while having received, housed and transported 4,322 soldiers disembarked from Spain in 1896 alone at Régla, the entrance to the port of Havana.
If Spain put an end to this vacuum clean-up operation, it was simply because it ended in failure on all levels.
The policy of the last quarter of an hour then corresponded to the slogan "to the last man, to the last peseta" which had to be abandoned at the sad end of 1897 when General Ramon Blanco arrived in Havana to replace Weyler with instructions that suddenly became "neither a man nor another peseta!"
@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ According to the work of the Berkeley School, there were twelve million Indians
120 years later, in the middle of the seventeenth century, there were only 1,270,000, according to Eric Wolf.
As in all of so-called “Latin” America, the contact between the two peoples, Spanish and Indian, resulted in a dizzying fall of the indigenous population.
Famine, repression, massacres, forced labor and diseases brought by Europeans (especially smallpox), against which the inhabitants of the “new world” had no biological immunity, having lived in a closed circuit since the Paleolithic, caused 90% of the indigenous population of Mexico to perish during the 16th century.
Famine, repression, massacres, forced labor and diseases brought by Europeans (especially smallpox), against which the inhabitants of the “new world” had no biological immunity, having lived in a closed circuit since the Paleolithic, caused 90\% of the indigenous population of Mexico to perish during the 16th century.
Then, it is the conquest of the Mayan Empire by Alvarado in 1523 and the Inca Empire by the bloodthirsty Francisco Pizarre from 1532 to 1537.
“Thus, in the space of some twenty years, empires built in several centuries are annihilated, indigenous communities dismantled and enslaved, the foundations of astonishing civilizations undermined.” (348).
@ -104,10 +104,10 @@ On some reserves, there are 100 deaths per 1,000 births, compared to 8.1 for whi
The average life expectancy for an Indian is 63 years compared to 76 years for whites, but there are reserves where it falls to 46 years.
Suicides among Indians are double those of whites: 21.8 versus 11.3 per 100,000 people.
They particularly affect young people. An Indian between the ages of 14 and 24 is four times more likely to kill himself than a white person. 75% of Indians are malnourished.
They particularly affect young people. An Indian between the ages of 14 and 24 is four times more likely to kill himself than a white person. 75\% of Indians are malnourished.
Alcoholism affects one in four men and one in eight women.
Urban Indians suffer more from this scourge than those on reserves, but 80% of the Indian population is victimized in various ways by this form of alienation caused by idleness and awareness of its loss of identity.
Urban Indians suffer more from this scourge than those on reserves, but 80\% of the Indian population is victimized in various ways by this form of alienation caused by idleness and awareness of its loss of identity.
Drugs, the “crack” are now wreaking significant havoc among the Indians.
Robert Pac
28
25 Capitalism to the assault of Asia, Yves Grenet.txt
@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ In French Indochina, in addition to the cochinchina plantations, the land emptie
Everywhere the products of metropolitan industries find their outlets.
In this colonized Asia, China remains theoretically independent. Relative independence.
From the Treaty of Nanking (1842) Chinese customs could only impose duties of 5% on goods from European industries, after the Third Opium War they were put in 1861 in the hands of officials of the capitalist powers.
From the Treaty of Nanking (1842) Chinese customs could only impose duties of 5\% on goods from European industries, after the Third Opium War they were put in 1861 in the hands of officials of the capitalist powers.
They take advantage of their position of strength to carve out concessions by the fait accompli like England in Shanghai.
Japan, still closed to foreigners, was “opened” by Commodore Perry's American squadron in 1853, which forced the Shogun government to let Westerners access its ports by the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854).
Here too, customs duties have been limited for the benefit of their exports and forced recognition of the extraterritoriality of certain portions of Japanese territory for their benefit.
@ -187,7 +187,7 @@ From 1924 to 1927, Guomindang (Kuomintang) troops led by Jiang Jie-si (Chiang Ka
He himself had the financiers Kong and Song as his brothers-in-law and had nothing to deny to the bourgeoisie.
Under his pressure he broke in 1927 with the Communists, who would form the “Republic of Chinese Soviets” in 1931, before leading the Long March to Shenxi in 1934.
The Guomindang in turn receives the support of the Western imperialists, who cede customs and legal advantages to put it in a position of strength vis-à-vis the Chinese people.
The “Four-Year Plan” aims to strengthen China's industry, in which banks invest huge amounts of capital. The annual growth rate was 8 to 9%.
The “Four-Year Plan” aims to strengthen China's industry, in which banks invest huge amounts of capital. The annual growth rate was 8 to 9\%.
But the global crisis reached China in 1932, so that a quarter of China's industries had stopped working by 1935.
The recovery was taking shape, the Communists had offered Jiang negotiations, and an agreement was in sight when Japan launched a general war against China in July 1937.
@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ Thailand following an agreement also of December 1941 let these troops pass. The
Japanese imperialism establishes its “Sphere of Asian Co-Prosperity”, a modest cover of its undivided domination.
Japan exploits coal from China, oil from Indonesia and Burma, tin and bauxite from Malaysia and Indonesia, cotton from the Philippines, rice from Thailand and Cochinchina for the benefit of its war economy.
Like that of his colony in Korea, it brutally recruited labor from Malaysia and Indonesia.
Japanese capitalism derives increased profits from the war; in 1942 the four major zaibatsu controlled 50% of Japan's financial capital, 32% of heavy industry and 61% of japan's sea transport;
Japanese capitalism derives increased profits from the war; in 1942 the four major zaibatsu controlled 50\% of Japan's financial capital, 32\% of heavy industry and 61\% of japan's sea transport;
they finance the “Development Companies” of occupied North and Central China, ensuring the maximum exploitation of Chinese wealth.
But other Asian capitalisms also benefit from the war.
@ -269,7 +269,7 @@ The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 brought about the San Francisco Peace Tre
The recovery of the economy known as the Jimmu boom began, and in 1955 the level of production of the 30s was caught up.
Gross national product is growing by 10 per cent per year. Japan also succeeded, in 1955, in gaining admission to gatt.
The Kishi government negotiated a new treaty with the United States restricting the use of U.S. bases in Japan for foreign operations in Asia, signed in early 1960; however, as it extended the American alliance, ratification met with popular protest.
The new Prime Minister Ikeda promised to double the GNP in ten years but the country really achieved it in five (1965) and continued to grow by 10 to 14% per year.
The new Prime Minister Ikeda promised to double the GNP in ten years but the country really achieved it in five (1965) and continued to grow by 10 to 14\% per year.
In 1970, Japan was the third largest economy in the world behind the United States and the Soviet Union.
Japanese capitalism organizes with the state a Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), which helps it in its purchases and sales, and subsidiaries of Japanese companies multiply in South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore.
@ -278,11 +278,11 @@ The US trade balance is in deficit (one billion dollars a year on average) while
The inconvertibility of the gold dollar announced by Nixon in 1971 was accompanied by a trade surcharge that penalized Japanese products.
The first oil shock (1973) led to a deficit in Japan's current account balance.
The yen, which had become a strong currency sought after on the foreign exchange markets, and Japanese exporters experienced the consequences from 1976 onwards.
This period nevertheless began with the Izanagi economic boom (1965-1970). From 1963 to 1972, the growth rate averaged 10.5% per year.
It was lower from 1973 to 1985, at around 4.1% per year. The rise of the yen in 1985-1986, due to the desired depreciation of the dollar, again threatened Japanese exports.
This period nevertheless began with the Izanagi economic boom (1965-1970). From 1963 to 1972, the growth rate averaged 10.5\% per year.
It was lower from 1973 to 1985, at around 4.1\% per year. The rise of the yen in 1985-1986, due to the desired depreciation of the dollar, again threatened Japanese exports.
Japan responds by saving energy, developing research in large companies (Fujitsu, Hitachi, Honda, Nippon Electric, Nissan, Toshiba, Toyota), decentralizing labor industries in Southeast Asia, and investing in developed countries.
Japanese capitalism has abundant savings (4.5% of gross domestic product), unparalleled management and information, compulsory levies are the lowest in the developed countries and military spending is only around 1% of GNP.
Nevertheless, after the Heisei boom (1986-1990), which was weaker than the previous ones, Japan entered a period of low growth in 1992 (1.4% average growth).
Japanese capitalism has abundant savings (4.5\% of gross domestic product), unparalleled management and information, compulsory levies are the lowest in the developed countries and military spending is only around 1\% of GNP.
Nevertheless, after the Heisei boom (1986-1990), which was weaker than the previous ones, Japan entered a period of low growth in 1992 (1.4\% average growth).
In 1997-1998 it experienced the most classic crisis of overproduction, that is to say of under-consumption, of which all capitalism is threatened.
The Second World War, like the First, was a profitable period for Indian capitalism.
@ -297,8 +297,8 @@ Heavy industry developed rapidly, that of consumer goods much slower. India rece
The "Green Revolution" dominated the periods 1961-1965 and 1966-1970 and agricultural production grew faster than the population.
But 1965-1967 were the years of the industrial recession. The weaknesses of Indian capitalism were emerging, as was the inefficiency of the public sector.
The industrial recovery of the years 1970-1977 was accompanied by concentration. On the other hand, Indira Gandhi privatized Indian banks for a time in 1971.
Industrial production grew slowly until 1984 and then faster (8% per year) until 1990. In the 80s, investment accounted for nearly 25% of gross domestic product.
The World Bank forced India to devalue the rupee by 50% in 1966.
Industrial production grew slowly until 1984 and then faster (8\% per year) until 1990. In the 80s, investment accounted for nearly 25\% of gross domestic product.
The World Bank forced India to devalue the rupee by 50\% in 1966.
That same year the conflict with Pakistan ended in Tashkent but it resumed during the East Pakistan uprising in 1971, which gave birth to Bangladesh.
Indian capitalism succeeded in 1981 in banning strikes in “essential” sectors, which did not prevent a general strike from killing 700 people in early 1982.
India is seeking foreign investment for its industries and is striving to conquer markets in Southeast Asia.
@ -311,7 +311,7 @@ Progressive reforms (nationalizations, agrarian reform) were adopted in 1971 by
But a military coup put General Mohammed Zia al-Haq in power in 1978, and Sharia law was adopted as the supreme law.
The country took an active part in the war in Afghanistan and received $3 billion in U.S. aid in six years.
Daughter of Ali Bhutto executed in 1979, her daughter Benazir Bhutto became prime minister in 1988, was deposed in 1990, returned to power in 1993.
Despite the unrest, the growth rate has fluctuated in recent years between 4 and 6% per year. The Pakistani ruling class retains many more traits of feudalism than the Indian one.
Despite the unrest, the growth rate has fluctuated in recent years between 4 and 6\% per year. The Pakistani ruling class retains many more traits of feudalism than the Indian one.
This probably partly explains the country's political oscillations. It admitted in 1992 that it could manufacture nuclear weapons and many believe that it undertook this manufacture.
The Indian peninsula may from one moment to the next ignite as a result of national rivalries between the ruling classes confronted that are reminiscent of what capitalist Europe experienced in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but this time in the nuclear age.
@ -328,10 +328,10 @@ After the American defeat in Vietnam (1975), the capitalisms of Southeast Asia e
Already in Indonesia after the coup d'état of 1965 which had caused 500,000 deaths and 700,000 arrests, Suharto from 1967 had given this country an impetus both nationalist and favorable to the great interests by developing a real colonialism (West New Guinea, Celebes, Moluccas, Timor).
In Thailand, military coups (1975, 1977, 1988) as in the Philippines under the presidencies of Marcos (1965-1986), Cory Aquino (1986-1992) and Fidel Ramos (from 1992), capitalism is strengthening.
The “newly industrialized countries” open their doors to foreign capitalism, obeying the rules of neoliberalism advocated by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.
Growth rates during the 90s were around 8% per year. Everywhere we give as a model the “new tigers” who have thus found the ways of economic take-off.
Growth rates during the 90s were around 8\% per year. Everywhere we give as a model the “new tigers” who have thus found the ways of economic take-off.
To these “new tigers” we must join the “new dragons” no less capitalist than them.
Taiwan had an average annual growth rate of 6.7% from 1977 to 1996, with peaks of up to 13% Hong Kong has set its growth rate at 5% for ten years and South Korea at 8.4%.
Taiwan had an average annual growth rate of 6.7\% from 1977 to 1996, with peaks of up to 13\% Hong Kong has set its growth rate at 5\% for ten years and South Korea at 8.4\%.
The latter has become the eleventh industrial power in the world.
South Korean capitalism is distinguished by the activity of its conglomerates or chaebol (Samsung, Daewoo, Kia, Halla, Hyundai, LG, Sangyong), which can not be better compared than to Japanese zaibatsu.
It is also marked by the many scandals of its ruling class, which has never hesitated to exert cruel repression against workers, students and opponents.
@ -340,7 +340,7 @@ The leaders of the main chaebol have all been punished by the courts for corrupt
The economic successes of both “new dragons” and “new tigers” attracted foreign capital to countries whose currencies were aligned with the dollar but where profits were higher than those made in the Western world.
When difficulties arose in 1997 this capital, representing speculative investments, began to flee the capitalist countries of East Asia.
The crisis began in Thailand in July and then spread to the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. Currencies had to be devalued (by 15-55%) and IMF and Japanese assistance was sought.
The crisis began in Thailand in July and then spread to the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. Currencies had to be devalued (by 15-55\%) and IMF and Japanese assistance was sought.
The disaster spread from stock exchange to stock exchange. Hong Kong reunited in July with China, but forming a special administrative region still fully capitalist, was reached in October and South Korea in December.
The same month in the latter country, discontent led to the election to the presidency of the opponent Kim Dae-jung who accepted the IMF plan, pardoned his predecessors and the leaders of the chaebol, but demanded from them a great rigor of management.
The financial crisis did not end in March l998. What is certain is that the growth rate of the East Asian countries will be lower than in previous years at least until the year 2000 and probably beyond.
8
26 Migrations in the XIXth and XXth century contribution to capitalism's history, Caroline Andréani.txt
@ -149,7 +149,7 @@ The mutual aid network welcomed him, housed him, and gave him a job.
Although rural, Irish migrants in countries of immigration have settled in the majority in cities.
Poorly skilled even in the field of agriculture, they had greater opportunities for survival in urban areas.
In 1940, 90% of the Irish in the United States were spread out in cities.
In 1940, 90\% of the Irish in the United States were spread out in cities.
Half of them lived in the five largest American cities, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston and San Francisco.
In their way of migrating and settling with a focus on community-based relationships, the Irish in the United States did not differ from other migrants at the same time:
@ -182,9 +182,9 @@ Among the most dramatic abuses, the pogrom of which the Italians were victims in
This type of collective violence seems to be banned today. Although the chronicles of the news are rich in attacks and murders of a racist nature.
The young man thrown into the Seine in Paris on May 1, 1995, during the demonstration of the National Front by a group of skinheads shows how temptations and risks exist.
356 80% of them settled in the United States and Canada, 11% in Australia, 5% in South Africa.
356 80\% of them settled in the United States and Canada, 11\% in Australia, 5\% in South Africa.
357 From 1875 to 1913, 4 million nationals of the Austro-Hungarian Empire emigrated. From 1900 to 1914, Russia had only 2.5 million emigrants, many of them Poles and Jews driven out by intensifying religious persecution.
358 Between 1876 and 1926, 84% of Irish emigrants left for the United States.
358 Between 1876 and 1926, 84\% of Irish emigrants left for the United States.
359 The term “community” is, like the term “ethnicity”, of delicate use. It assumes that migrants from the same country form a coherent whole, with collective and identity reactions.
Nothing is less certain. There are networks of sociability, more or less well organized.
In this case, in the absence of a more suitable term, this term refers to the reception network around the migrant, his family, his neighbors, relationships ...
@ -259,7 +259,7 @@ While the rich countries have directly benefited from the impoverishment of the
Third reason, capitalism is a system in constant evolution and adaptation. Today, the technical constraints are different from those that prevailed in the 1950s.
Why produce in rich countries where it is necessary to pay — more or less — correctly for labour and to respect the laws of labour, when it is enough to relocate the units of production to benefit from a workforce whose wage is so low that it becomes marginal in the total cost of production.
This is how the weight of the salary on the price of a pair of Nike shoes represents 0.125% of its selling price... It is easy to understand that Moulinex closes its production plants in Alençon to settle in Mexico.
This is how the weight of the salary on the price of a pair of Nike shoes represents 0.125\% of its selling price... It is easy to understand that Moulinex closes its production plants in Alençon to settle in Mexico.
In all eras, capitalism has been able to stimulate large migratory flows for its needs. When he did not directly stimulate them, it knew how to take advantage of them.
We are currently living in a period of transition where migration is no longer necessarily a benefit for capitalism as before.
26
27 Capitalism, armament race and arms trade, Yves Grenet.txt
@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ The triumphant capitalism of the years 1850-1890 marched forward despite crises,
The Crimean Wars (1845-1856), the Italian Wars (1859), the Civil War (1861-1865), the Mexican War (1864-1867), the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Franco-German War of 1870-1871, the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 are a reminder that no more than the Empire, capitalism is peace.
It was also during this period that armaments made great progress linked to those of chemistry, steel and mechanics.
In 1846, the German scientist Schônbein had invented pyroxylin much more powerful than gunpowder, in 1847, the Italian chemist Sobrero had nitroglycerin.
In 1862, the Swede Nobel undertook the manufacture of this nitroglycerin on an industrial scale, in 1867 that of dynamite (75% nitroglycerin + 25% porous earth), exploding with a mercury fulminate detonator, then in 1888 the Nobel powder dynamite.
In 1862, the Swede Nobel undertook the manufacture of this nitroglycerin on an industrial scale, in 1867 that of dynamite (75\% nitroglycerin + 25\% porous earth), exploding with a mercury fulminate detonator, then in 1888 the Nobel powder dynamite.
Owning factories in Sweden, Germany, France and other countries, he is the very type of arms capitalist although he would have preferred to be remembered for the creation of the Nobel Peace Prize.
Other chemical mixtures with primer are born: tolite, lydia, melinite etc. The properties of picric acid, which heat detonates, were increasingly used until the First World War.
Chemical plants can develop, in addition to explosives, weapons that are themselves chemical. As early as 1855, Great Britain had projectiles capable of spreading ammonia gases that were not used.
@ -160,17 +160,17 @@ In 1920, the economist Charles Gide quantified the annual military expenditure r
1883* 1913* Accroissement
France 789 1 471 86 %
France 789 1 471 86 \%
Great-Britain 702 1 943 177 %
Great-Britain 702 1 943 177 \%
Russia 894 2 642 195 %
Russia 894 2 642 195 \%
Italy 311 749 140 %
Italy 311 749 140 \%
Germany 504 2 302 357 %
Germany 504 2 302 357 \%
Austria-Hungary 318 822 158 %
Austria-Hungary 318 822 158 \%
* in millions of francs
@ -294,7 +294,7 @@ They tried to complete their system by creating ANZUS (Australia-New Zealand-Uni
The creation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and the Korean War (1950-1953) explain this military pactomania that the USSR feels as a desire for encirclement.
On both sides, a new arms race began. By 1948, world military spending had exceeded in constant currency that of 1938.
The Korean War gave them a boost: they almost doubled from 1950 to 1953 (see table), decreased a little from 1954 but remained at a high level.
The escalation resumed in the 60s: annual global military spending increased by 60% between 1960 and 1970 and by another 20% between 1970 and 1980.
The escalation resumed in the 60s: annual global military spending increased by 60\% between 1960 and 1970 and by another 20\% between 1970 and 1980.
In 1975 the world devoted resources for military purposes greater than the total world production in 1900.
A third of the world's research and development spending was aimed at war in the late 70s;
500,000 scientists, researchers and engineers work there, including about 350,000 years in capitalist countries.
@ -405,7 +405,7 @@ It is true that the United States, within the framework of NATO, delivered many
From there, these switched to licensed manufacturing, and then some national bases of the arms industries were reconstituted.
A real West German military-industrial complex, like the phoenix, was reborn from the ashes of its Nazi predecessor with firms such as Messerchmitt, Daimler, MTU or Rheinmetall (Röchling group);
however, American interests are present in German firms, particularly in the latter.
Great Britain has maintained, despite the decline of its manufacturing industry, a high level of military production (50% of aeronautical production has this character for example) from firms such as British Aerospace, GEC, Lucas Industries, Rolls Royce, Vsel, Hunting.
Great Britain has maintained, despite the decline of its manufacturing industry, a high level of military production (50\% of aeronautical production has this character for example) from firms such as British Aerospace, GEC, Lucas Industries, Rolls Royce, Vsel, Hunting.
The France pursued a policy of independent military production, reflecting Gaullist determination, benefiting the firms Thomson, DCN, Dassault, Aerospace, GIAT, Matra.
Concentrations have taken place within the national framework:
merger of Daimler Benz and Messerschmitt, merger of Krupp Maschinenbau and Rheinmetall in 1990, absorption of Ferranti and Plessey by GEC, current desire to bring Aerospace and Dassault closer together despite the reluctance of the latter.
@ -413,7 +413,7 @@ merger of Daimler Benz and Messerschmitt, merger of Krupp Maschinenbau and Rhein
But \emph{these} mergers increasingly involve companies from different European countries.
Siemens shares with GEC the remains of Plessey, Thomson buys the great Dutch specialist in military electronics HSA, the Belgian arms industry disappears absorbed in particular by the French.
Matra and British Aerospace created in 1996 a joint company Matra Bae Dynamics, which comes immediately after Raython Hughes for the manufacture of missiles.
Non-European firms participated in the movement: the Canadian company Bombardier took over Shorts, the largest armaments firm in Northern Ireland and the Bruges armoured manufacturer in Belgium, the American United Technologies 40% of the capital of the British Westland.
Non-European firms participated in the movement: the Canadian company Bombardier took over Shorts, the largest armaments firm in Northern Ireland and the Bruges armoured manufacturer in Belgium, the American United Technologies 40\% of the capital of the British Westland.
The European Union aims to acquire companies of comparable size to those of the United States with the creation of the European Armaments Agency.
Since 1976 there has been an independent European Programme Grouping (EIPG).
However, the British armaments industries, especially but also German, have strong ties across the Atlantic and aircraft orders from European states are often placed with the United States.
@ -472,7 +472,7 @@ With the East-West tension gone, it was questionable whether the enormous accumu
It was a misunderstanding of capitalism. Although the Warsaw Treaty was dissolved in 1991, NATO continued to exist and expand to Eastern Europe.
Global military spending, after reaching an all-time high of $1 trillion in 1989, began to narrow from 1990 onwards and in 1996 hovered around $700 billion.
NATO's military spending (including France) fell by 31% between 1989 and 1996 but remains enormous.
NATO's military spending (including France) fell by 31\% between 1989 and 1996 but remains enormous.
U.S. military research and development spending fell by 25 percent between those two dates, Germany's by 21 percent, France's by 19 percent, and Britain's by 15 percent.
@ -553,7 +553,7 @@ U.S. arms exports had increased sixfold from 1961 to 1975.
What is remarkable is that they continued to rise rapidly after the Vietnam War with an exceptional peak in 1978 (13 times those of 1961) under the influence of the exacerbation of the Cold War.
Arms exports from capitalist countries, like those from around the world, after declining slightly in the late 70s, began to grow again, reaching peaks from 1982 to 1984 and in 1987.
The 80s were marked not only by the maintenance of a high level of the Arms Trade of the United States but by an extraordinary surge in arms sales of the France, the amount of which sometimes exceeded 40% of American sales and even reached 70% to the countries of the South.
The 80s were marked not only by the maintenance of a high level of the Arms Trade of the United States but by an extraordinary surge in arms sales of the France, the amount of which sometimes exceeded 40\% of American sales and even reached 70\% to the countries of the South.
This made France the world's largest per capita arms exporter.
The recipients were largely in the Middle East, so that at the time of the Gulf War, in early 1991, French public opinion may have feared that French soldiers would be killed by French weapons delivered to Iraq in previous years.
The international détente from 1988 onwards explains a fairly rapid decline in the capitalist arms trade as well as its rival in the last years of the Cold War.
@ -629,7 +629,7 @@ On the other hand, an "international code of conduct" was presented by Nobel lau
These attempts at moralization in the era of globalization and neoliberalism may meet with some skepticism, regardless of the goodwill of the authors of these proposals.
Capitalism will continue to sell weapons where and when it seems profitable, if it does not come up against a vast movement of public opinion.
Sales in the capitalist countries still represented 92% of those of 1991 in 1996.
Sales in the capitalist countries still represented 92\% of those of 1991 in 1996.
The United States comes out on top, followed by Russia and the three major Western European countries (France, Germany and the United Kingdom).
The German arms trade increased during these years as a result of the frg's sale of GDR army equipment to various countries around the world.
The United Kingdom has sometimes managed to surpass the France. The Gulf War was followed by an increase in orders from the Middle East.
@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ The economic and social damage therefore appears only as “dysfunctions” when
This process, which corresponds at the end of the twentieth century to a strategic victory of capitalism over the socialist and non-aligned camp, is based on a murderous utopia, globalization, the first applications of which reveal a negative balance sheet, in all areas, for the future of the planet.
Indeed, the ecological crisis itself is clearly analyzed as a social crisis and the product of a system where abundance cannot be shared.
To ensure the comfort level of 20% of humanity, it is already necessary today to divert cereal production from the poor world, to cut down its forests, to destroy its traditional ways of life, to deport expropriated or ruined peasants to the favellas and barrios of Latin America, the forbidden neighborhoods of South Asia, the suburbs of Manila, the slums of Dakar;
To ensure the comfort level of 20\% of humanity, it is already necessary today to divert cereal production from the poor world, to cut down its forests, to destroy its traditional ways of life, to deport expropriated or ruined peasants to the favellas and barrios of Latin America, the forbidden neighborhoods of South Asia, the suburbs of Manila, the slums of Dakar;
we must organize a market for raw materials in the manner of the rapine that has thrown a billion human beings into extreme poverty.
At the very bottom of the scale, one in six inhabitants of our planet has only one dollar a day to survive!
@ -61,11 +61,11 @@ India ceded to the IMF in 1991, the new Russia did so the same year.
Cuba and Vietnam opened up to mass tourism and China restored the market economy in the “special economic zones”.
In early 1998, in the midst of the Asian crash, the Chinese state liberalized all prices except housing, health and transportation.
Today, in 1998, the 200 largest transnational corporations already control 80% of the world's agricultural and industrial production as well as 70% of the world's services and trade, more than two-thirds of the $25 trillion in gross global product (barely $1 trillion a hundred years ago).
Today, in 1998, the 200 largest transnational corporations already control 80\% of the world's agricultural and industrial production as well as 70\% of the world's services and trade, more than two-thirds of the $25 trillion in gross global product (barely $1 trillion a hundred years ago).
Associated with the debates and decisions of the G8 summits, the “decision-makers” of the trusts (agri-food, oil or armaments) intervene directly on world affairs.
In collaboration with the financial giants of global capital (pension funds, large transnational banks and institutionalized speculators), the agencies of the IMF and the WB elaborate their diktats, break economies, bring the recolonized states to heel.
All these “managers” and all these “presidents”, for the benefit of the “top one” (the richest 1% in the world) organize the suffering of the “sixty bottom” (the poorest 60%) ...
All these “managers” and all these “presidents”, for the benefit of the “top one” (the richest 1\% in the world) organize the suffering of the “sixty bottom” (the poorest 60\%) ...
Neoliberal ideology, radicalized by its strategic successes, also globalizes its targets:
Launched into the reconquest of the entire world market, it aims at the establishment of a “universal structural adjustment”, which must bring to heel the emerging rival powers (NPI and Japan in particular), but above all obtain the destruction of the welfare states of the developed countries, by the dismemberment of the social and contractual policies obtained in a century and a half of fierce struggles.
@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ The full list of forced displacements due to “major works” is impossible to
A large number of international organizations and local resistance groups have sought to alert world opinion to the plight of rural populations or ethnic groups around the world who have swelled the ranks of those excluded from the big cities for the sole benefit of the large lending organizations and trusts that finance and carry out all the major projects in the world.
The most astonishing thing about this case is that this enormous human waste, coupled with real ecological disasters, took place for nothing, in terms of result, even in the technical sense of the term:
two successive internal World Bank reports, written by expert groups led by specialists appointed by the Bank itself, established in the early 90s that only 43% of the works undertaken and financed with the Bank's assistance were functioning.
two successive internal World Bank reports, written by expert groups led by specialists appointed by the Bank itself, established in the early 90s that only 43\% of the works undertaken and financed with the Bank's assistance were functioning.
Sandblasted dams, unfinished roads, dry wells. What a picture!
The money, on the other hand, is actually gone, and it is the people who are being asked to repay, through new sacrifices!
@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ But the arrival of experts from the World Bank and the IMF, the invasion of the
Peasant refugees in the cities work for less than half an hour and those who do not have jobs live on the streets:
with a million homeless people in the cities, ex-communist China is slowly sliding towards an “Indian-style” situation.
The subcontinent, strongly deruralized in a generation, has seen more than ten million peasants flock to its big cities ruined per year during all the 70s, and nearly twenty million during the 80s and 90s.
Brazil, which now has only 35% of rural people, and Mexico, which privatizes the “ejidos”, the collective farms of the Zapatista era, are very far from being able to manage the mass of development refugees.
Brazil, which now has only 35\% of rural people, and Mexico, which privatizes the “ejidos”, the collective farms of the Zapatista era, are very far from being able to manage the mass of development refugees.
Since 1950, how many peasants have been ruined by expropriations, the pollution of their waters and the diktat of the prices imposed by the London and Chicago Stock Exchanges, which set agricultural prices around the world?
The classic capitalist colonial scheme is therefore simply being resettled.
@ -169,10 +169,10 @@ The classic capitalist colonial scheme is therefore simply being resettled.
3. — “Structural adjustment” is waging war on the poor
In 1998, 45 countries around the world were officially declared food imbalances: the daily ration was between 73 and 95% of the FAO standard (2,345 calories per day).
In 1998, 45 countries around the world were officially declared food imbalances: the daily ration was between 73 and 95\% of the FAO standard (2,345 calories per day).
In Sahelian Africa after three decades of development aid and ten years of structural adjustment, the average daily food ration is 1,730 calories (exactly half the average in the United States!). India, with 2,200 calories, is barely approaching the proper ration.
However, given the social gaps, it can be seen that below 95% of the FAO standard on a national average, almost a third of the population is malnourished.
85% of them start “hunger riots” or civil wars. At 75% appear episodic famines...
However, given the social gaps, it can be seen that below 95\% of the FAO standard on a national average, almost a third of the population is malnourished.
85\% of them start “hunger riots” or civil wars. At 75\% appear episodic famines...
Between 1965 and 1980, the average annual per capita income in the countries of the North (excluding Eastern countries) increased by more than $900;
at the same time, the annual per capita enrichment of the countries of the South (excluding OPEC) did not exceed 3 dollars!
@ -212,7 +212,7 @@ Then the term “structural adjustment loans” began to describe heavier financ
The first “structural adjustment programme”, consisting of a veritable package of successive measures, each accompanied by adequate loans, hit Turkey in 1980 and was supplemented by a special drawing right in IMF funds in 1981 and again in 1985 to the tune of one and a half billion dollars.
Then the World Bank added another long-term loan in 1985, in view of the progress of the adjustment measures taken by the Turkish government.
Nearly 20 years later, where does Turkey stand? The rural exodus has destroyed subsistence agriculture, Istanbul has grown by 600%, in conditions that are unsustainable in all respects.
Nearly 20 years later, where does Turkey stand? The rural exodus has destroyed subsistence agriculture, Istanbul has grown by 600\%, in conditions that are unsustainable in all respects.
The Turkish state has failed in its task of economic support (turning its back on Kemalism), and under the military dictatorship has made its liberal turn.
Successive devaluations caused catastrophic price increases while the minimum wage was abolished, as well as price controls.
Thrown into misery, overwhelmed by the dictatorship, the Turkish people have gradually allowed themselves to be caught up in fundamentalist propaganda, which constantly castigates businessism, social polarization and the decadence of morals.
@ -264,11 +264,11 @@ Two billion people today are officially malnourished, and another billion suffer
All experts (even those of the World Bank, who insist on the “temporary” aspect of the phenomenon) admit that poverty has increased in severity, proportion and absolute figures since 1985.
One of the clear signs of the savagery of adjustment is the fate of children in poor countries, including former Eastern European countries.
In Argentina, for example, perinatal mortality reaches 50 children out of a thousand, 1.5 times more than in 1980. In Zambia, malnutrition killed 13 per cent of children under three in 1980.
In 1998, the rate of 42% was reached, i.e. approximately the figure of the twelfth century in France. In the adjusted countries of Africa, six out of every thousand women die in childbirth. In Asia, four, in Latin America, 2.5.
In 1998, the rate of 42\% was reached, i.e. approximately the figure of the twelfth century in France. In the adjusted countries of Africa, six out of every thousand women die in childbirth. In Asia, four, in Latin America, 2.5.
In the G8 countries, the rate is sixty times lower, but twice as high as in the early 80s.
The deregulation of economies is dragging down protective legislation:
at a time when young French students were protesting in the streets against Édouard Balladur's “SMIC jeunes”[A nickname given to a work contract for people under 26 at 80% of the minimal wage], Indian children were taking to the streets to demand equal pay for equal work.
at a time when young French students were protesting in the streets against Édouard Balladur's “SMIC jeunes”[A nickname given to a work contract for people under 26 at 80\% of the minimal wage], Indian children were taking to the streets to demand equal pay for equal work.
When the IMF suggested that the Rao government lower the minimum working age and repeal the minimum wage, the Indian state, working on behalf of ultraliberal experts from the IMF and the WB, imposed the plan and sent its police to break the strikes.
To date, no international convention has succeeded in concretely resolving the problem of the exponential increase in child labour, which amounts to slavery authorized by the States concerned.
2
29 Capital's globalization and root causes of barbary's threats, François Chesnais.txt
@ -182,7 +182,7 @@ in the context of a situation marked by the presence of indicators reflecting th
Inspired by the classic distinction of the “Unpublished Chapter of Capital”, we can say that the subordination it imposes is a matter of mechanisms that recall formal submission rather than real submission.
The mechanisms of “siphoning” value trump creation. The choice of indicators to assess a trend is obviously not neutral.
It refers to theoretical and political postulates (366).
If we take the indicator of growth of world product per capita, which is a serious indicator of the state of wealth production before the conditions of its distribution intervened, we see that this annual growth rate was around 4% between i960 and 1973, then fell to 2.4% between 1973 and 1980, it is only 1.2% between 1980 and 1993.
If we take the indicator of growth of world product per capita, which is a serious indicator of the state of wealth production before the conditions of its distribution intervened, we see that this annual growth rate was around 4\% between i960 and 1973, then fell to 2.4\% between 1973 and 1980, it is only 1.2\% between 1980 and 1993.
Another indicator that many economists consider crucial is the level of private investment.
However, in the OECD countries, i.e. the richest, the investment curve as well as the savings curve are tilted sharply downwards so that we are at the limit of a situation of enlarged reproduction.
In 1994, the World Trade Organization (the already notorious WTO) published a long statistical series that shows the steady fall, beyond cyclical fluctuations, in the average annual rate of world growth. Over the period 1984-1994, this rate fell to 2 per cent and could be even lower at the turn of the millennium.
4
30 Swiss bankers kill without machine guns, Jean Ziegler.txt
@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ Swiss bankers kill without machine guns, Jean Ziegler
Thanks to its banking secrecy, its numbered accounts, the law of free convertibility, the cynicism and the extreme technical competence of its bankers, Switzerland is today the safe deposit box of the world.
In 1998, it was the first richest country in the world (per capita income, according to the World Bank's method of calculation).
Around 40% of the world's private wealth managed outside their home countries is managed in Switzerland.
Around 40\% of the world's private wealth managed outside their home countries is managed in Switzerland.
Swiss banking fortresses and branches around the world not only host the spoils of cross-border organized crime cartels, the astronomical assets of Russian crime lords, but also the treasure of the propertied and despot classes of Africa, Asia and Latin America.
What is the relationship between the dirty money of organised cross-border crime and the illicit capital fleeing the Third World?
@ -266,7 +266,7 @@ In June 1997 the revolutionary forces of Laurent Kabila's AFDL (Alliance of Demo
Mobutu and his family fled to Gabon and then to Morocco. The kleptocrat died shortly afterwards of cancer in Tangier.
The new government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is asking the Swiss government to sequester Mobutu's property, his immediate relatives and his main accomplices.
Accounts are blocked in Switzerland. But only those who bear the name of Mobutu (and his own).
Ridiculous operation: because the financial empire of the kleptocrat, which for 38 years (reminder: Mobutu came to power in November 1965) benefited from the expert assistance of the best Swiss bankers, consists of 99% offshore companies, Anstalten of Liechtenstein, fiduciary accounts - in short:
Ridiculous operation: because the financial empire of the kleptocrat, which for 38 years (reminder: Mobutu came to power in November 1965) benefited from the expert assistance of the best Swiss bankers, consists of 99\% offshore companies, Anstalten of Liechtenstein, fiduciary accounts - in short:
assets, only a tiny part of which are under the name of Mobutu. Switzerland is therefore only blocking $6 million.
The rest of the $11 billion officially sought by the Kinshasa government's “Bureau des biens mal acquis”[Office of badly acquired goods] (official title) remain supposedly untraceable.
14
31 An ad is worth a thousand bombs Advertising's crimes in modern warfare Yves Frémion.txt
@ -66,8 +66,8 @@ Academics in need of funding have lent themselves in both cases, with great comp
\section{Culture and media}
The American model, where 90% of culture is financed by private companies, has helped European countries dismantle their public funding in this area.
Gradually, the state, in France as elsewhere, disengages financially, but also politically. 30% of French culture sponsored is sponsored by banks, insurance companies and the agri-food industry, whose disinterestedness can be guessed.
The American model, where 90\% of culture is financed by private companies, has helped European countries dismantle their public funding in this area.
Gradually, the state, in France as elsewhere, disengages financially, but also politically. 30\% of French culture sponsored is sponsored by banks, insurance companies and the agri-food industry, whose disinterestedness can be guessed.
Who can believe that the content of the works thus framed does not change?
Almost all of the written information had been held financially for years only through alcohol and tobacco advertisements.
@ -80,10 +80,10 @@ Who can then be surprised that whistleblowers of the dangers of tobacco, one of
For culture, a change of mentality is gradually revealed:
many creators no longer rely on their success with the public, but on the sole satisfaction of the funder, on whom whether the work exists or not depends, with the consequences that we guess for its content.
\emph{sponsoring} now accounts for 75% of TV shows in France (including 20% for stupid games that occupy the most followed slots).
\emph{sponsoring} now accounts for 75\% of TV shows in France (including 20\% for stupid games that occupy the most followed slots).
It has gradually replaced, in the eyes of advertisers, advertising \emph{stricto sensu}:
it is a response to the zapping of viewers harassed by advertising, who change channels when it arrives. Now, impossible to escape, advertising is \emph{in] the program!
Worse, nearly 50% of France-Television's budget comes from commercial revenues when in principle there should be 0%...
Worse, nearly 50\% of France-Television's budget comes from commercial revenues when in principle there should be 0\%...
The climax is called “bartering”; they are simply entire programs offered to the channels, turnkey, already fully realized, with the advertising inside: soap opera, game, documentary show ...
The channel has nothing to do, it does not need to pay a director, nor authors, nor technicians, nor animator, nor even the film or the studio, even less to think about how to seduce the viewer, it does not have to look for the money to produce, it just has to buy a cassette and broadcast it: a dream come true...
@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ In France, the two \emph{“Les Visiteurs”}, public triumphs, brought this pri
\section{Sport}
80% of the \emph{sponsoring} of sport — actually competition and not sports practice — goes to motor sports and the sports programs that show them are sponsored... by the same firms.
80\% of the \emph{sponsoring} of sport — actually competition and not sports practice — goes to motor sports and the sports programs that show them are sponsored... by the same firms.
Only one sporting competition, the Prix automobile de Monaco in 1992, saw the same name of a tobacco company appear on the screen... 1134 times, while it is forbidden.
@ -186,7 +186,7 @@ Puritan vogue has done the rest, and the picturesque that the mainstream media i
More seriously, it is trivial to say that foreign policies are more often carried out by a few oil companies than by states.
Without Shell, whose interests were threatened by its public action, Ken Saro-Wiva would never have been hanged in Nigeria.
Without Total, which has deported thousands of Burmese peasants obstinate to live on the territory of its pipeline project (75% of foreign investment in Burma), Nobel Peace Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi would be free and... Prime Minister instead of military dictators.
Without Total, which has deported thousands of Burmese peasants obstinate to live on the territory of its pipeline project (75\% of foreign investment in Burma), Nobel Peace Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi would be free and... Prime Minister instead of military dictators.
The examples are legion and the simple list of political crimes committed on the orders of Elf in Africa would hold pages.
We better understand the usefulness of advertising hype to silence (by buying the media), correct the image and pretend to be harmless traders.
@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ For fun let's compare:
- In 1994, advertising (stricto sensu) spent 330.5 billion francs in Europe, 406.7 billion in the USA and 172 billion in Japan;
- These figures are the equivalent of 50% of the debt of all of South America, or 100% of Middle-East's or North Africa's debt du Moyen-Orient.
- These figures are the equivalent of 50\% of the debt of all of South America, or 100\% of Middle-East's or North Africa's debt du Moyen-Orient.
- In France by comparison, the budget of Culture is about 50 billion.
LaTeX Anon
2 years ago