@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ the seventy-five years that followed during which it was able to exploit it with
It remains to measure its past and present role, no longer on the French scale but “European”, even “globalized” in the destructuring / destruction of the economy and society of independent Algeria and in the resumption of (Islamist) violence, from the 1980s to today.
/section{Emerging capitalisme and colonial conquest}
\section{Emerging capitalisme and colonial conquest}
1. The share of capital in the decision of the expedition of Algiers.
@ -52,17 +52,17 @@ The dominant tendency of rising capitalism was, from the beginning, to assume th
The latter proposes, after having noted “the contradiction (of) the march of the occupation” “to extend colonization under military protection” so as not to reduce “the fruit of many efforts” (187).
The capture of Constantine in 1837 rallied, apart from Desjobert's last fires, the liberals to a “single thought” of French capitalism.
176 in /emph{Revue encyclopédique, May 1830.
176 in \emph{Revue encyclopédique, May 1830.
177 To the king and the chambers on the real causes of the break with Algiers, Paris, 1830.
178 Parlementary Archives , vol. 61, in R. VALET, /emph{L'Afrique devant le parlement au XIXe siècle}(Africa before the parliament in the XIXth century), Paris 1824.
179 /emph{Ibid., vol. 96,} in R. VALET, /emph{op. cit.}
180 /emph{Ibid.
181 /emph{Ibid., vol. 96,} in R. VALET, /emph{op. cit}
182 /emph{Ibid., vol. 110,} in R. VALET, /emph{op.cit.}
183 Quoted in DUBOIS and TERRIER, /emph{Un siècle d'expansion coloniale} (A Century of Colonial Expansion.)
184 parl. arch., vol. 66, in R. VALET, /emph{op. cit.}
185 LARCHER, /emph{Traité élémentaire de législation algérienne}, vol. II Paris, 1911.
186 R. VALET, /emph{op. cit.}
178 Parlementary Archives , vol. 61, in R. VALET, \emph{L'Afrique devant le parlement au XIXe siècle}(Africa before the parliament in the XIXth century), Paris 1824.
179 \emph{Ibid., vol. 96,} in R. VALET, \emph{op. cit.}
180 \emph{Ibid.
181 \emph{Ibid., vol. 96,} in R. VALET, \emph{op. cit}
182 \emph{Ibid., vol. 110,} in R. VALET, \emph{op.cit.}
183 Quoted in DUBOIS and TERRIER, \emph{Un siècle d'expansion coloniale} (A Century of Colonial Expansion.)
184 parl. arch., vol. 66, in R. VALET, \emph{op. cit.}
185 LARCHER, \emph{Traité élémentaire de législation algérienne}, vol. II Paris, 1911.
186 R. VALET, \emph{op. cit.}
187 Minutes and reports of the commission appointed by the King on 7 July 1833.
@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ The “contempt for a solemn capitulation” (...) of rights ... the most natura
Following its example, Voirol, as early as 1834 in Algiers, then Trézel in 1835 in Orania, violated the Desmichels Treaty, concluded on January 6, 1834 with 'Abd el-Qader, to have a free hand against the bey of Constantine.
Similarly, once this city was taken, the deliberate transgression in 1839 of the Treaty of Tafna concluded for the same end, with the same partner, on May 30, 1837, the deliberate passage of troops in the disputed area because of the ambiguity between Arabic text and French translation, provoked the offensive reaction of the emir.
188 /emph{Ibid.} (Paris 1834).
188 \emph{Ibid.} (Paris 1834).
In the House on 8 June 1838, had Not Bugeaud said: “Treaties have never bound nations except when they are in accordance with their interests? (189).”
@ -114,16 +114,16 @@ Babor and the Wadi el-Kebir in 1851 (196). In 1849, in the Aurès and ziban, the
in Nara, “everything that had been locked there passed through weapons or crushed by the fall of the terraces of houses” (197).
In 1857, during the occupation of the great Kabylia, according to the Count of Hérisson (198), “the native ears were worth for a long time 10 francs a pair, and their wives remained, like them, a perfect game” as well as in the South where, from a column where a shot had not been fired, he confessed to having brought back “a full barrel”.
189 Cité par AZAN (Colonel P.) /emph{L’Émir ‘Abd-El-Kader}, Paris, 1925.
191 \emph{Voyage dans la Régence d’Alger}, vol. III. Paris, 1833.
192 CAVAIGNAC, Letter to General Létang, 19 Avril 1834, in M. EMERIT, \emph{L’Algérie au temps d’Abdelkader.
193 MONTAGNAC (Colonel de), \emph{Lettres d’un soldat}(letters of a soldier), Paris 1885.
194 T.E.F. (Tableau des Établissements Français dans l’Algérie/Table of French Establishmentsin Algeria) 1844-45.
195 /emph{Ibid.} (1846-49), p. 7.
196 /emph{Ibid.} (1846-49), p. 11, (1850-52) pp. 2, 3, 5, 7 et 8.
197 /emph{Ibid.} (1846-49), p. 11.
198 HÉRISSON (Count of), /emph{La chasse à l’homme}, Paris, 1866.
195 \emph{Ibid.} (1846-49), p. 7.
196 \emph{Ibid.} (1846-49), p. 11, (1850-52) pp. 2, 3, 5, 7 et 8.
197 \emph{Ibid.} (1846-49), p. 11.
198 HÉRISSON (Count of), \emph{La chasse à l’homme}, Paris, 1866.
@ -192,20 +192,20 @@ of all those, Muslims and Jews, of Miliana; of all those also of Medea, Mascara,
The result, note the T.E.F. about Constantine, “an unfortunate influence on the industrial and commercial movement of the city” (218), also reported for Algiers, Mascara, Tlemcen, etc. (increase in prices and rents, impoverishment and scarcity of buyers, break with the countryside, etc.), in no way compensated by the “traffic” initiated around the garrisons of the new centers.
199 BARTILLAT (Marquess of), /emph{Relation de la campagne d'Afrique en 1830}(Relation of Africa campaign in 1830), Paris, 1833.
199 BARTILLAT (Marquess of), \emph{Relation de la campagne d'Afrique en 1830}(Relation of Africa campaign in 1830), Paris, 1833.
200 T.E.F., 1839 and 1840.
201 /emph{Ibid.}, 1842.
202 /emph{Ibid.}, 1844-45, pp. 2-5, and 1846-49, pp. 2.
203 /emph{Ibid.}, 1845-46, p. 8.
204 /emph{Ibid.}, 1846-1849, pp. 7-11.
205 ROZET, /emph{op. cit}, vol. III, pp. 202-214.
201 \emph{Ibid.}, 1842.
202 \emph{Ibid.}, 1844-45, pp. 2-5, and 1846-49, pp. 2.
203 \emph{Ibid.}, 1845-46, p. 8.
204 \emph{Ibid.}, 1846-1849, pp. 7-11.
205 ROZET, \emph{op. cit}, vol. III, pp. 202-214.
206 MONTAGNAC, op. cit., p. 334.
207 T.E.F., 1840.
208 SAINT-ARNAUD (letters of Marshal of..), t. I, Paris 1858.
209 T.E.F. (1844).
210 /emph{Ibid.} (1844-45) pp. 2-5.
211 /emph{Ibid.} (1846-49).
212 /emph{Ibid.} (1850-1852), pp. 2-8.
210 \emph{Ibid.} (1844-45) pp. 2-5.
211 \emph{Ibid.} (1846-49).
212 \emph{Ibid.} (1850-1852), pp. 2-8.
213 SAINT-ARNAUD, .op. cit., vol. II.
214 Case of General Youssouf reported by d'Hérisson. According to AZAN (op. cit., p 459), in 1854, in the High-Sebaou, “everywhere the houses ... were largely demolished,... the fruit trees, olive trees, fig trees, were cut down by the workers.”
215 ROZET, op. cit. cit., vol. I, p. 120, vol. III, p. 264 and p. 204.
@ -229,9 +229,9 @@ Even with the colonial contribution, Algiers did not regain its total population
as for their Muslim component, these cities were not to find it again until 1906, 1911, 1901, 1891 respectively; Oran, and even Kolea and Cherchel, yet intact, not before 1872 (220).
Still, it would essentially be a rural or ruralized settlement for at least a generation, driven back or exodus by their impoverishment in the countryside, precarious in a dilapidated or marginal habitat.
The “dispossession of the fellahs” (221) began in 1830 with the confiscation of the lands of the former state (beylik) and its dignitaries, — their haouch(s) in Mitidja — then in the plains of Bône and Oran, and after 1837 of the /emph{'azel} of the Constantinois, first awarded for rent to speculators who made their former farmers work there, then increasingly conceded (the 94,796 ha of the haouchs in 1838).
The expropriation of the /emph{'arch} lands of the communities immediately followed, prolonging destruction and extortion, to establish on their best lands, following sequestration or confiscation of fallow land without titles, centers of colonization populated in particular by the deportees of June 1848.
This “cantonment” often took more than half of the /emph{'arch}. 224,993 ha of /emph{'azel} were lost for their 5,232 farmers, expelled, before the end of the Second Empire.
The “dispossession of the fellahs” (221) began in 1830 with the confiscation of the lands of the former state (beylik) and its dignitaries, — their haouch(s) in Mitidja — then in the plains of Bône and Oran, and after 1837 of the \emph{'azel} of the Constantinois, first awarded for rent to speculators who made their former farmers work there, then increasingly conceded (the 94,796 ha of the haouchs in 1838).
The expropriation of the \emph{'arch} lands of the communities immediately followed, prolonging destruction and extortion, to establish on their best lands, following sequestration or confiscation of fallow land without titles, centers of colonization populated in particular by the deportees of June 1848.
This “cantonment” often took more than half of the \emph{'arch}. 224,993 ha of \emph{'azel} were lost for their 5,232 farmers, expelled, before the end of the Second Empire.
If the proclaimed objective of the senate-consulte of 1863 is to establish the property of the tribes, it will above all make it possible to detach possibly unrecognized sections on the best lands.
The sequestration, at the expense of tribes refugees in Morocco or sanctioning the insurgents of 1863-1864 and 1871, puts the richest lands at the disposal of colonization:
a reserve of 568,817 hectares in 1871,222, removing from the Kabyles the winter pastures of their plains and the high cereal plains of Medjana.
@ -245,7 +245,7 @@ It has also nationalized or communalized areas of the same order.
219 Speech to the Chamber of Deputies, 14 May 1840.
220 Data derived mainly from comparative population counts.
221 To use the title of a book by Djilali SARI, Alger, 1975.
222 Figure borrowed from A. NOUSCHI, in LACOSTE, NOUSCHI, PRENANT, /emph{L’Algérie, passé et présent}(Algeria, past and present), Paris, 1960, like other data in this paragraph
222 Figure borrowed from A. NOUSCHI, in LACOSTE, NOUSCHI, PRENANT, \emph{L’Algérie, passé et présent}(Algeria, past and present), Paris, 1960, like other data in this paragraph
2.4. Les conséquences : le « désastre démographique » algérien.
@ -273,7 +273,7 @@ there are no decisive conditions here, but only favourable to the tipping point
— to follow two periods of marked repression: in 1848-1849, the one that followed the crushing of the resistance of 'Abd el-Qader and the upheavals that prolonged it, among others the burning of all the crops of the insurgent Ouarsenis, the destruction of reserves, the consequent abandonment of land, fines, confiscations;
in 1866-1868, the repression of the insurrection of 1864-1865 arose in particular in the west, the Algerian-Oran steppe and the Babor, also marked by destruction, heavy fines, 6 million gold of war contribution
— to accompany a decline in Algerian appropriation and the exploitation of land itself: the first phase is characterized by the beginning of the “cantonments” and the creation of many centers of colonization on the land taken, the second by their acceleration, the first limitations of /emph{'arch} because of the Senatus-consulte, the granting of its concession to the Algerian company.
— to accompany a decline in Algerian appropriation and the exploitation of land itself: the first phase is characterized by the beginning of the “cantonments” and the creation of many centers of colonization on the land taken, the second by their acceleration, the first limitations of \emph{'arch} because of the Senatus-consulte, the granting of its concession to the Algerian company.
The responsibility of power can be read in this official commentary on the famine of 1848-1849:
@ -299,14 +299,14 @@ In Miliana, if the balance sheet is, narrowly, negative for the Europeans (but n
The mark of a rural excess mortality at least as serious can be read in the inscription (usually insignificant) of 107 and then 486 unknown and external to the commune who came to take refuge and die there, these two years.
223 SARI (Djilali), /emph{Le désastre démographique}(the demographic disaster), Algiers, 1982.
224 Cf. YACONO (X.), Can we evaluate the population of Algeria on the eve of the conquest, in /emph{Revue Africaine}, 1954, and PRENANT (A.) in LACOSTE, NOUSCHI, PRENANT, /emph{op. cit.}.
225 Cf. A.PRENANT in LACOSTE, NOUSCHI, PRENANT, /emph{op. cit.}, p. 321.
226 /emph{Ibid.}, p. 320.
223 SARI (Djilali), \emph{Le désastre démographique}(the demographic disaster), Algiers, 1982.
224 Cf. YACONO (X.), Can we evaluate the population of Algeria on the eve of the conquest, in \emph{Revue Africaine}, 1954, and PRENANT (A.) in LACOSTE, NOUSCHI, PRENANT, \emph{op. cit.}.
225 Cf. A.PRENANT in LACOSTE, NOUSCHI, PRENANT, \emph{op. cit.}, p. 321.
226 \emph{Ibid.}, p. 320.
227 T.E.F. (1846-49), p. 13.
228 Letter to the Duke of Magenta (Mac Mahon), 20 June 1865.
229 T.E.F. (1866-72), pp. 62-64.
230 SARI (Dj.) /emph{op. cit.} Cit.
230 SARI (Dj.) \emph{op. cit.} Cit.
2.5. The consequences: the impoverished and bruised French people.
@ -340,12 +340,12 @@ It exceeds even more the number of those who died of their injuries in hospital.
Finally, among the generals of the army of Algeria are Cavaignac, who, having returned to France, directed the murderous repression of the days of June 1848, and Saint-Arnaud, organizer of December 2, 1851 and the repression that followed.
231 General Statistics of Algeria (1865-66) pp. 110-111, and (1866-72), pp. 212-213. The evolution is provided by the T.E.F. (1830-37, 1838, 1839, 1840-41, 1842-43, 1844-45, 1846-49, 1850-52, 1853-58, 1859-61, 1862, 1863-64).
232 Cf. SARI (Dj.), /emph{op. cit.}, pp. 188-191 and pp. 208-209.
232 Cf. SARI (Dj.), \emph{op. cit.}, pp. 188-191 and pp. 208-209.
233 PRENANT (A.), La dépendance de l'Algerie et les finances françaises, In Économie et Politique(economy and politics), Nov. 1956, pp. 42-51.
/section{The exploitation of “French Algeria” (1871-1954)}
\section{The exploitation of “French Algeria” (1871-1954)}
The suppression of the insurrection of 1871 created for 75 years, then, after an even more deadly repression, in 1945, for another ten years, until November 1954, a period of “calm” favorable to “business”.
@ -370,7 +370,7 @@ roads, railways, vineyards, citrus fruits, health, schools, etc., on the underst
In the context of a more subtle colonial “revisionism”, Jacques Marseille, in the edition of his thesis (234), considers that the importance of the expenditure of French public funds in this country 235 would attest to the magnitude of the “metropolitan effort”.
It is he who would have thus set up “the structures generating imbalance” by making it possible to satisfy demand “at the price of (the) trade deficit”, an effort made “to save Algeria from misery and rebellion” (236).
It considers as proof that the possession of the country would not have been “of such great convenience for the metropolis” the maintenance by this financing, — and by the transfers of the emigrants -, of a local consumption and, a posteriori, the finding that with independence, “the disappearance of the protected area did not (a) finally cause any serious damage” (237) for “France” whereas according to /emph{Les Échos} on 12 March 1956, it should have “inevitably led to unemployment”.
It considers as proof that the possession of the country would not have been “of such great convenience for the metropolis” the maintenance by this financing, — and by the transfers of the emigrants -, of a local consumption and, a posteriori, the finding that with independence, “the disappearance of the protected area did not (a) finally cause any serious damage” (237) for “France” whereas according to \emph{Les Échos} on 12 March 1956, it should have “inevitably led to unemployment”.
The favourable evolution for “Algeria” of the terms of trade during the crisis and the Second World War would prove that “France” did not take advantage of it to “impose surcharges on its Algerian customers (and) to supply themselves cheaply” (238).
Ultimately, it would be the generosity of French capital that would be responsible for the deterioration of the “state of equilibrium (...) of the “Algerian economy” that Jacques Marseille believes to detect from 1914 to 1945 in the “satisfactory situation of public finances and foreign trade” by arousing, by “the parity of wages with France,” social security, family allowances, a “new series of handicaps” to “attract capital”.
He also took up the thesis of Le Figaro affirming, on October 11, 1953, that if “half of the Muslim rural masses (...) slowly dies of hunger, this is the “consequence of hygiene brought by the France”:
@ -409,18 +409,18 @@ All the unprofitable branches from Tlemcen to Beni-Saf, towards Arzew and Mostag
On a network with loose meshes, traced (like the Bechar rail for strategic reasons) private road traffic replaced, with 43,078 trucks in 1951, 40% of a car fleet whose 56,391 passenger cars corresponded to the French service rate (1 for 40 souls) only, again for the million Europeans and one Algerian in ten.
234 /emph{Empire colonial et capitalisme français, histoire d'un divorce}(Colonial empire and french capitalism, history of a divorce), Paris, Albin Michel, 1984.
235 “ from 1865 to 1937,... as first investment capital,... 1531, 3 million francs” /emph{Ibid.}, p. 116.
236 /emph{Ibid.}, pp. 141-142.
237 /emph{Ibid.}, p. 32.
238 /emph{Ibid.}, p. 68.
239 /emph{Ibid.}, pp. 145-139.
240 /emph{Ibid.}, pp. 135-137.
241 PRENANT (A.) Settlement factors of a city in inland Algeria: Setif, In /emph{Annales de Géographie}, Paris, 1953, pp. 434-451.
242 Id. Questions of urban structure in three suburbs of Sisi-Bel-Abbès. In /emph{Bulletin de l'Association de Géographes Français}, 1956, pp. 62-75.
234 \emph{Empire colonial et capitalisme français, histoire d'un divorce}(Colonial empire and french capitalism, history of a divorce), Paris, Albin Michel, 1984.
235 “ from 1865 to 1937,... as first investment capital,... 1531, 3 million francs” \emph{Ibid.}, p. 116.
236 \emph{Ibid.}, pp. 141-142.
237 \emph{Ibid.}, p. 32.
238 \emph{Ibid.}, p. 68.
239 \emph{Ibid.}, pp. 145-139.
240 \emph{Ibid.}, pp. 135-137.
241 PRENANT (A.) Settlement factors of a city in inland Algeria: Setif, In \emph{Annales de Géographie}, Paris, 1953, pp. 434-451.
242 Id. Questions of urban structure in three suburbs of Sisi-Bel-Abbès. In \emph{Bulletin de l'Association de Géographes Français}, 1956, pp. 62-75.
243 Statements of Civil Status, and Diplomas of Higher Studies of H. Delannoy (Annex) and M.-A. Thumelin-Prenant (1956).
244 Statistical Yearbook of Algeria, Algiers, 1948-49, 1950, 1951.
245 ROZET, /emph{op. cit.}, vol. II, p.75.
245 ROZET, \emph{op. cit.}, vol. II, p.75.
@ -457,11 +457,11 @@ the repatriation of the rest (46 billion that year) and the amount of the trade
246 MARSEILLE (J.), op. cit., p. 140.
247 /emph{Id., ibid.}, p. 72.
248 /emph{Id., ibid.}, p. 237.
249 /emph{Id., ibid.}, p. 116.
250 /emph{Id., ibid.}, p. 132.
251 The data of the report of the study group on financial relations between France and Algeria (1955) are largely put to use in these paragraphs which attempt to summarize A. PRENANT, Art. Cit. in /emph{Économie et Politique}, Nov. 1956.
247 \emph{Id., ibid.}, p. 72.
248 \emph{Id., ibid.}, p. 237.
249 \emph{Id., ibid.}, p. 116.
250 \emph{Id., ibid.}, p. 132.
251 The data of the report of the study group on financial relations between France and Algeria (1955) are largely put to use in these paragraphs which attempt to summarize A. PRENANT, Art. Cit. in \emph{Économie et Politique}, Nov. 1956.
4. The massacre opposed to rising political demands.
@ -491,7 +491,7 @@ This is the observation that leads to the insurrectional struggle a nucleus from
/section{1954-1962. A war to keep exploiting}
\section{1954-1962. A war to keep exploiting}
1. A return to massacres, destructions, destructuring.
@ -508,7 +508,7 @@ To the deaths are added, in Algeria, the destruction of villages, crops and fore
and the displacement of populations (estimated at least 1,800,000 souls) (252), driven from prohibited areas, thus removed from their cultures and "grouped" (concentrated) either in plains in areas of mechanized colonial appropriation that do not offer work, or around cities.
The rural exodus, triggered at the end of the last century by the dispossession of the fellahs, reinforced after 1918 by the loss of jobs linked to the mechanization of agriculture, is thus exacerbated, accentuating imbalance and distortion between settlement and economy of cities deprived of housing (until the colonial exodus of 1962), social infrastructure and industry.
252 Cf. /emph{L’Événement du Jeudi}, 25 au 31 Octobre 1990.
252 Cf. \emph{L’Événement du Jeudi}, 25 au 31 Octobre 1990.
2. Adverse impact on France.
@ -525,7 +525,7 @@ This violence of the power is also exercised against the French protests, two mo
253 PRENANT (A.), art. Cit. 1956, p. 43.
254 MARSEILLE (J.), op. cit. cit., p. 256.
255 See EINAUDI (J.L.), /emph{La Bataille de Paris}, 17 October 1961, Paris, Seuil, 1991.
255 See EINAUDI (J.L.), \emph{La Bataille de Paris}, 17 October 1961, Paris, Seuil, 1991.
@ -547,17 +547,17 @@ Public investment has therefore played well, at this time to compensate for the
Mendès-France declaring, on April 11, 1961: “Algeria costs us (...) more than it brings us” (262) silenced these returns to private capital.
The fact remains that, for the first time in the history of colonization, probably in the illusion of retaining its use, the French colonial capitalist state created in Algeria, and bequeathed to it in 1962 with independence, a productive equipment, although conceived exclusively as integrated into the needs of French capitalism.
256 PEYREFITTE (Alain), /emph{C’était de Gaulle.}(It was De Gaulle)vol. 1, Paris, Fayard, 1994, pp. 76-77.
256 PEYREFITTE (Alain), \emph{C’était de Gaulle.}(It was De Gaulle)vol. 1, Paris, Fayard, 1994, pp. 76-77.
257 Quoted by J. MARSEILLE, op. cit., p. 349.
258 Quoted, /emph{id., ibid.}
259 PRENANT (A.), /emph{art. cit.}, 1956, p. 44.
258 Quoted, \emph{id., ibid.}
259 PRENANT (A.), \emph{art. cit.}, 1956, p. 44.
260 Cité in MARSEILLE (J.), p. 146.
261 /emph{Ibid.}, p. 147.
262 In a press conference quoted by J. TOUCHARD, Le Gaullisme, 1940-1969, Paris, Seuil 1978, taken up by MARSEILLE (J.), /emph{ibid.,} p. 373.
261 \emph{Ibid.}, p. 147.
262 In a press conference quoted by J. TOUCHARD, Le Gaullisme, 1940-1969, Paris, Seuil 1978, taken up by MARSEILLE (J.), \emph{ibid.,} p. 373.
/section{1980-1998. Towards structural adjustment through Islamist terrorism}
\section{1980-1998. Towards structural adjustment through Islamist terrorism}
It is a productive apparatus created for Algerian national needs, offering four times more jobs than before independence and on the way to a largely integrated structure, which the opening to the “market” neutralizes from 1978-1980 before sterilizing and eroding it, again destructuring Algerian society.
During the previous eighteen years, during which Algeria had hardly remained linked to international capitalism except by the exchange of 95 to 98% of its hydrocarbons for imports, mainly of equipment (for more than a third) and (for all that) of raw materials and semi-finished products, the production of energy (and above all electricity) had been multiplied by 7.
@ -604,7 +604,7 @@ André Prenant
André Prenant is a geographer.
263 Cf. PRENANT (A.) et SEMMOUD (Bouziane) : Algeria; the deconstruction of an industrial fabric, in : Méditerranée, N°3-4, Aix, 1997.
264 Cf. /emph{les Cahiers du GREMAMO}, n° 12 : SEMMOUD (B.) Urban growth, mobility and social change in the Oran conurbation (1995) and n° 14: Recherches urbaines sur l'Algérie (1997).
265 Algeria : a resistible regression, in /emph{Aujourd’hui l’Afrique(Today Africa)}, n° 67, February 1998.
264 Cf. \emph{les Cahiers du GREMAMO}, n° 12 : SEMMOUD (B.) Urban growth, mobility and social change in the Oran conurbation (1995) and n° 14: Recherches urbaines sur l'Algérie (1997).
265 Algeria : a resistible regression, in \emph{Aujourd’hui l’Afrique(Today Africa)}, n° 67, February 1998.
2
20 African independencies and communism (1960-1998), Francis Arzalier.txt
@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ The history of Mexico's stripping is dramatically instructive in this regard.
/section{The carving up of Mexico}
\section{The carving up of Mexico}
Texas — a territory larger than France — had always belonged, since the arrival of the conquistadores, to the crown of Spain, and then to independent Mexico.
@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ In 1845, Texas entered the Union as a slave state. The election campaign led by
/sectiçn{The Anschluss of New Mexico and California}
\section{The Anschluss of New Mexico and California}
Once Texas was swallowed, the next Anschluss was practiced on two other major Mexican provinces: New Mexico and California.
@ -253,7 +253,7 @@ The naval expedition to Paraguay in 1858-1859 is an example of this.
/section{The expedition to Paraguay}
\section{The expedition to Paraguay}
In 1851, the United States government had appointed Edward A. Hopkins of the United States and Paraguay Navigation Company as Consul in Asuncion, one of the owners of a shipping company domiciled in Rhode Island.
@ -296,7 +296,7 @@ Paraguay apologized — guilty of enforcing its sovereignty over its own territo
The United States and Paraguay Navigation Company, for its part, continued a long lawsuit against the Paraguayan government, in which it was later dismissed.
/section{The Buccaneers}
\section{The Buccaneers}
By the mid-nineteenth century, the conflict of interest between Britain and the United States for control of the Caribbean worsened.
The two countries were led to sign the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty by which the contracting parties declared that they were working for the construction of an interoceanic canal in Nicaraguan territory, without informing Nicaragua of this.
@ -328,7 +328,7 @@ What is true, however, is that at the end of the nineteenth century, the United
The United States had become a great industrial power and had reached an imperialist phase that was now vying the other powers for its share in world affairs.
280 An account exists of this episode: /emph{La guerra de Nicaragua}, translated from English by Ricardo Fernádez Guardia, Ediciones Universidad Centroamericana, San José, Costa Rica, 1970.
280 An account exists of this episode: \emph{La guerra de Nicaragua}, translated from English by Ricardo Fernádez Guardia, Ediciones Universidad Centroamericana, San José, Costa Rica, 1970.
Some authors point to the role played in the new foreign policy of successive governments of the time by Alfred Mahan, author of The Influence of Maritime Power in History.
Mahan, in this book, recalled the superiority of maritime empires over land powers in history.
@ -384,7 +384,7 @@ At the end of the century, Yankee interventions multiplied: Hawaii, Puerto Rico,
Dismayed, Mark Twain wrote: “Let us paint the white stripes black and add the shins and skull where the stars are placed.”
/section{Cuba under the U.S. boot}
\section{Cuba under the U.S. boot}
Since 1868, Cuban patriots had taken up arms against the Spanish colonial power. Defeated after ten years of fighting, they started the war again in 1895.
@ -433,7 +433,7 @@ It was only in 1934 that Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed to withdraw certain clause
/section{The Drago Doctrine and the “Roosevelt Corollaries” of the Monroe Doctrine}
\section{The Drago Doctrine and the “Roosevelt Corollaries” of the Monroe Doctrine}
In December 1902, British, German and Italian warships appeared in front of the Venezuelan coast, sank a few ships and blocked ports.
They demanded the payment of compensation due to European nationals.
@ -459,7 +459,7 @@ Roosevelt's two speeches will serve as a justification for the Yankee imperialis
The Big Stick policy — “speak softly and take with you a big stick” — would be the official policy of the Yankee government for the first decades of the century.
/section{The secession of Panama}
\section{The secession of Panama}
Since the time of the Spanish conquest, many people had striven to imagine an inter-oceanic passage in Central America.
Several projects and scouting to find the most suitable place had been made.
@ -533,7 +533,7 @@ Remon and Torrijos will die in two mysterious aviation accidents.
/section{Interventionism in the Caribbean}
\section{Interventionism in the Caribbean}
The Caribbean area was a privileged place where North American armed interventions were concentrated.
@ -576,7 +576,7 @@ The presence of Yankee capital had its corollary in an imperialist policy which,
/section{Interventions in Veracruz and Tampico}
\section{Interventions in Veracruz and Tampico}
After the overthrow and assassination of President Francisco Madero in 1913 —in which Yankee Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson took part— General Huerta seized power.
@ -607,7 +607,7 @@ Calles exerted a harsh repression and counted with the support of the Yankee tro
/section{Intervention in Haiti}
\section{Intervention in Haiti}
@ -653,13 +653,13 @@ from 23,490 in 1915, the number rose in 1920 to more than 30,000. Another migrat
The shameless collaboration of the bourgeois elites was counterbalanced by the epic of the “Cacos” of Charlemagne Peralte, who for four years (1915-1919), practiced a guerrilla war and stood up to the occupying troops before being treacherously murdered.
The marines did not leave Haitian territory until July 1934.
297 Carlos Machado, /emph{Documentos, op. cit.}, p. 75.
297 Carlos Machado, \emph{Documentos, op. cit.}, p. 75.
298 Castor Sucy, op. cit. cit., p. 28.
299 Ibid., p. 35.
/section{The third intervention in Nicaragua}
\section{The third intervention in Nicaragua}
In August 1925, the marines left the country after thirteen years of occupation.
@ -693,7 +693,7 @@ Franklin D. Roosevelt had said of Somoza, the man of the United States: “Somoz
/section{The Chaco War: An Expression of Imperialist Rivalries}
\section{The Chaco War: An Expression of Imperialist Rivalries}
Between 1932 and 1935 the bloody Chaco War took place.
@ -732,7 +732,7 @@ Argentina delayed until 1950 to affix its signature.
/section{The United States and Perón}
\section{The United States and Perón}
The quarrel between Argentina and the United States dated back to the time of the Second World War. Perón, who came to power legally in 1946, had been in office in Mussolini's Italy between 1939 and 1941.
@ -755,7 +755,7 @@ The Argentine people have responded as any people would have replied when foreig
/section{The “guatemalazo”}
\section{The “guatemalazo”}
The Cold War increased the paranoia of the United States, which behind every strike or demonstration saw the hand of the Communists.
@ -792,7 +792,7 @@ As soon as he came to power, Castillo Armas repealed the land reform and other m
/section{Bay of Pigs}
\section{Bay of Pigs}
Triumphant in 1959, the Cuban Revolution caused an earthquake throughout the continent.
@ -837,7 +837,7 @@ This little “Marshall Plan” was abandoned by Johnson a few years later when
/section{Coup in Brazil}
\section{Coup in Brazil}
The coup, against President Joao Goulart, inaugurated a series of coups in which the United States appeared directly involved.
@ -855,7 +855,7 @@ Only from 1979, a return to civilian rule would begin.
/section{The intervention in Santo Domingo}
\section{The intervention in Santo Domingo}
The United States intervened and occupied Santo Domingo from 1916 to 1924.
@ -894,7 +894,7 @@ Colonel Caamaño, crowned with immense prestige, died a few years later, in a la
/section{The Thousand Days of Popular Unity}
\section{The Thousand Days of Popular Unity}
The specter of communism — Washington's obsession — seemed to turn into flesh and blood when Chilean socialist physician Salvador Allende, supported by a coalition of left-wing parties — Popular Unity — won the election on September 4, 1970.
@ -919,7 +919,7 @@ On the evening of the same day, Henry Kissinger, Richard Helms and President Nix
According to the Church Commission, Nixon's instructions were precise, written in his own hand:
“Save Chile... we must not deal with the risks, do not compromise the embassy, 10 million if necessary ... full-time work... action plan in 48 hours... ” (311)
310 Davis Nathaniel, /emph{Los dos ultimos anos de Salvador Allende}, Plazay Janes editores, Barcelona, 1986, p. 18.
310 Davis Nathaniel, \emph{Los dos ultimos anos de Salvador Allende}, Plazay Janes editores, Barcelona, 1986, p. 18.
311 Ibid., p. 19.
The “Track II” plan included several phases, ranging from the corruption of deputies, generals and admirals, to the assassination of the army commander-in-chief who refused to follow the putschists and was ambushed in October 1970.
@ -946,7 +946,7 @@ Defeated, he had to give way, in 1990, to a democratically elected civilian whil
/section{Intervention in Nicaragua}
\section{Intervention in Nicaragua}
@ -981,7 +981,7 @@ In 1990, the Sandinista government — decried as a totalitarian regime — held
/section{The invasion of Granada}
\section{The invasion of Granada}
The invasion of the tiny island of Grenada was part of the new Cold War that took place during the first half of the eighties.
@ -1006,7 +1006,7 @@ The operation that “liberated Grenada from a Marxist dictatorship” had an el
/section{Operation “Just Cause”}
\section{Operation “Just Cause”}
On October 2, 1977, a referendum in Panama ratified the new Carter-Torrijos Treaty. The Panamanian people abrogated the Leonine Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty, “never signed by a Panamanian,” as General Omar Torrijos liked to repeat.
@ -1055,10 +1055,10 @@ In May 1994, Ernesto Perez Valladares of Noriega's party triumphed in the electi
Panamanians are holding their breath waiting for the year 2000 which, according to the last Treaty, will bring them full sovereignty over the canal. Unless...
312 Conte Porras Jorge, /section{Del Tratado Hay-Buneau Varilla, al Tratado Torrijos-Carter}, Impresora Panama, 1982, p. 144.
312 Conte Porras Jorge, \section{Del Tratado Hay-Buneau Varilla, al Tratado Torrijos-Carter}, Impresora Panama, 1982, p. 144.
/section{Humanitarian response in Haiti}
\section{Humanitarian response in Haiti}
Contrary to what many people think they know, the North American intervention of the nineties in Haiti, does not date from October 15, 1994, but...
@ -1071,7 +1071,7 @@ He found a very comfortable refuge on the Côte d'Azur where, since then, he has
General Raoul Cendras, head of the junta that overthrew Father Aristide in September 1991, had perpetrated the 172nd coup since Haiti gained independence in 1804, almost two centuries ago.
Christophe Wargny wrote, in 1996, with Pierre Mouterde, a book that bears the suggestive title of /emph{Apre bal tambou lou: five years of American duplicity in Haiti, 1991-1996} (314),
Christophe Wargny wrote, in 1996, with Pierre Mouterde, a book that bears the suggestive title of \emph{Apre bal tambou lou: five years of American duplicity in Haiti, 1991-1996} (314),
where he shows the combined action against Aristide — not free of contradictions — by the United States, the military, the Haitian oligarchy and the Vatican.
The latter, being opposed to Father Aristide, because of his commitment to liberation theology.
78
22 United States, the uncomplete dream. The long march of African Americans, Robert Pac.txt
@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ Today, there are no more large national and structured black organizations, no m
/section{A victory called into question}
\section{A victory called into question}
Since the 70s, the benefit of hard-won legislation, officially intended to end racial exclusion, has been nullified by a government strategy of physical encirclement and economic isolation leading to a real decadence of social life in the ghettos.
@ -49,13 +49,13 @@ The government relies on this racist propaganda to justify programs to gradually
Thus, it is almost the end of “busing” and school integration or “affirmative action” which was intended to ensure equal opportunities in education and employment for victims of discrimination of yesterday and today.
/section{A policy of genocide}
\section{A policy of genocide}
“Every year, our economy produces more and more products and services with fewer and fewer people.
The hard, unskilled work—the work that no one wanted, the work that tolerated blacks in America, the kind of work that we niggers have always done—is rapidly disappearing.
Even in the South, mississippi for example, more than 95 percent of cotton is picked by a machine.
Today, black labor is no longer profitable, or even sought after, the American economy no longer needs it. ”
This is how actor and activist Ossie Davis spoke in the preface to /emph{We charge génocide} in 1970 (International Publishers Co. Inc.).
This is how actor and activist Ossie Davis spoke in the preface to \emph{We charge génocide} in 1970 (International Publishers Co. Inc.).
The new, well-paid jobs are not easily accessible to African-Americans because, on the whole, they have a low level of education and degrees.
@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ The weapons of this genocide, in addition to misery, hunger, the break-up of fam
Plus the elimination of a large part of the black population by the American judicial and penitentiary system.
/section{Ghettos: an American-style apartheid}
\section{Ghettos: an American-style apartheid}
The black question in the United States is the result of a centuries-old policy of exclusion in its economic, cultural, ideological, social and political aspects.
@ -105,18 +105,18 @@ On a project for a so-called “reform” of social assistance in the early 80s:
“This is not a welfare reform, it's a plan to turn ghettos into vast cemeteries — because there is no work.
The aim of this legislation is to ensure that entire layers of minorities die, because this decrepit capitalist system no longer needs it. ”(316)
315 Andrew Hacker in /emph{Two Nations, Charles Scribner’s Son}. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1992.
316 Genocide USA, /emph{Workers Vanguard} n° 463, 21 octobre 1988.
315 Andrew Hacker in \emph{Two Nations, Charles Scribner’s Son}. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1992.
316 Genocide USA, \emph{Workers Vanguard} n° 463, 21 octobre 1988.
/section{Drugs}
\section{Drugs}
Drugs have always been in the hands of the white man an important instrument of his oppression of men of other races.
The best known example is the import into China of opium from India which was to provoke the famous “opium war” (1839-1842) between England and China whose government wanted to ban opium trafficking.
With China defeated, England's rule was facilitated by a corrupt regime and, above all, by the organized poisoning of an entire people by drugs.
Poisoning is the term used by Ho Chi Minh (then Nguyen ai Quoc) in 1925, in his clandestine book /emph{Le procès de la colonisation française} (The Trial of French Colonization) in which he denounced the French policy in Indochina which imposed on every Indochinese a significant consumption of alcohol and opium.
Poisoning is the term used by Ho Chi Minh (then Nguyen ai Quoc) in 1925, in his clandestine book \emph{Le procès de la colonisation française} (The Trial of French Colonization) in which he denounced the French policy in Indochina which imposed on every Indochinese a significant consumption of alcohol and opium.
This method of annihilating the will to revolt among the colonized was of general use among the colonizers.
It was particularly widely used by the conquerors of North America against the Amerindians.
@ -149,7 +149,7 @@ The miserable living conditions of blacks and also the lack of immune defenses o
/section{cocaine babies}
\section{cocaine babies}
One in five black children born in the ghetto today is a drug addict. He is even before he is born.
@ -170,12 +170,12 @@ They are so sensitive that they cannot be handled or fed normally. They stir the
Even the most hardened of medical specialists cannot bear the intolerable screams of these babies.
“Never in my medical career have I seen such suffering as cocaine,” the director of maternity at General Hospital in the District of Columbia told the Wall Street Journal. “” (319)
317 /emph{L’Humanité}, February 22 1990.
318 /emph{New York Post}, May 9 , 1990.
319 /emph{International Herald Tribune}, July 29/30 1981.
317 \emph{L’Humanité}, February 22 1990.
318 \emph{New York Post}, May 9 , 1990.
319 \emph{International Herald Tribune}, July 29/30 1981.
/emph{The genocide}
\emph{The genocide}
The drug spread like an epidemic in black American ghettos. Is this trivialization the effect of chance?
To this question put to three members of the Detroit City Council, infamous for its ghettos, the following answers were given:
@ -209,14 +209,14 @@ But Jerry Ceppos, the editor, wrote:
Despite this (spontaneous?) about-face of the San Jose Mercury News, we see, as many African-American sociologists and activists believe, that the trade in “crack”, cocaine and heroin, like AIDS, are all elements of a secret and unspeakable conspiracy on the part of the government and the CIA to exterminate a large part of the black population.
320 Quoted in /emph{L’Humanité}, November 8 1988.
321 /emph{New York Post}, May 9 1990
322 /emph{New York Post}, May 8 1990.
323 /emph{Peoples Daily World}, May 3 1990.
320 Quoted in \emph{L’Humanité}, November 8 1988.
321 \emph{New York Post}, May 9 1990
322 \emph{New York Post}, May 8 1990.
323 \emph{Peoples Daily World}, May 3 1990.
/section{police brutalities}
\section{police brutalities}
The Murder by Miami Police officers of Arthur McDuffy, a black insurance agent guilty of burning a red light on his motorcycle in 1979;
@ -264,7 +264,7 @@ With such weapons, and in the repressive context of the American political syste
/section{Justice and prisons}
\section{Justice and prisons}
“These are your creations, uncle: chains and sticks. You created them four hundred years ago and you use them to this day.
@ -328,15 +328,15 @@ In New Jersey, 69% of inmate deaths were AIDS-related, as were 66% in New York,
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia, reports that AIDS cases are on the rise in U.S. prisons.
5,279 prisoners were infected with AIDS in 1994, or 5.2 cases per 1,000 prisoners, almost six times the rate in the general adult population of 0.9 per 1,000 (331).
327 In /emph{Par la petite porte}(by the little door), by Ernest J. Gaines, Liana Levi Éditeur, 1996.
328 Lennox Hinds, /emph{in Illusion of Justice}, University of Iowa, 1978.
327 In \emph{Par la petite porte}(by the little door), by Ernest J. Gaines, Liana Levi Éditeur, 1996.
328 Lennox Hinds, \emph{in Illusion of Justice}, University of Iowa, 1978.
329 Sentencing Project 1991.
330 /emph{International Herald Tribune}, September 14 1993.
331 /emph{International Herald Tribune}, April 6/7 1996.
330 \emph{International Herald Tribune}, September 14 1993.
331 \emph{International Herald Tribune}, April 6/7 1996.
/section{ The “ Crime Bill ”}
\section{ The “ Crime Bill ”}
On 19 November 1993, the Senate adopted a major “Crime Bill” which proposes, inter alia, to extend the scope of the death penalty to more than 60 new crimes.
@ -350,10 +350,10 @@ During the debate on this bill, senators voted by 52 votes to 41 to adjourn cons
By its vote of 314 to 111, the House of Representatives followed the Senate's positions on capital punishment.
332 Mumia Abu Jamal in /emph{Live from the Death Row}, Éditions La Découverte, 1996.
332 Mumia Abu Jamal in \emph{Live from the Death Row}, Éditions La Découverte, 1996.
/section{Baseball and Justice}
\section{Baseball and Justice}
In March 1995, Jerry D. Williams, 25, two children, Californian and Black, stole a slice of pepperoni pizza from kids at a Redondo Beach fast food restaurant and was sentenced to 25 years in prison under the three strikes law signed by President Clinton in 1994.
@ -364,7 +364,7 @@ A slice of pizza is worth 25 years of imprisonment, like a hold-up, like rape, l
“The baseball* determines American jurisprudence, we can fear in the coming years that the convicts will be purely and simply handed over to the circus lions.”
/section{Prison conditions}
\section{Prison conditions}
Despite the rhetoric of U.S. prison officials extolling the humanity of U.S. prisons, prisoners and their visitors claim that brutality in prisons has never gone away and even taken on a new and often hidden form.
@ -432,7 +432,7 @@ In other States, prisoners are being stripped of exercise rooms and television,
Human rights groups challenge this national trend as “cruel and unusual punishment” prohibited by the Constitution.
/section{death penalty}
\section{death penalty}
Racism also plays its role in the application of the death penalty. This is a horrible lottery, Amnesty International said in its 1987 report on the death penalty in the United States.
@ -476,7 +476,7 @@ We know Sacco and Vanzetti well, the Rosenbergs or Willie McGee. But how many ot
/section{Executions of minors}
\section{Executions of minors}
@ -521,12 +521,12 @@ Shouldn't we aspire to raise American moral standards to the level of recognized
334 Amnesty International, Report on death penalty 1987.
335 Amnesty International : United States, Minors on “death row” (Index A I : AMR 51/23/91), publié en 1991.
336 Greenwald Hélène B., Capital Punishment for Minors : An Height Amendment Analysis, in /emph{Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology}, Volume 74, n° 74, 1983.
336 Greenwald Hélène B., Capital Punishment for Minors : An Height Amendment Analysis, in \emph{Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology}, Volume 74, n° 74, 1983.
337 Amnesty International, internal document, London, january 1994.
/section{Executions of persons suffering from mental disorders and mental retardation}
\section{Executions of persons suffering from mental disorders and mental retardation}
A large number of prisoners suffering from mental disorders or mental retardation are under sentence of death and many others have been executed in the United States.
@ -588,10 +588,10 @@ The report concluded that Marion's practices violated “the United Nations mini
/section{Political prisoners}
\section{Political prisoners}
In a 1978 interview with the French newspaper /emph{Le Matin}(The morning), Andrew Young, a member of the black community and then U.S. ambassador to the UN, said:
In a 1978 interview with the French newspaper \emph{Le Matin}(The morning), Andrew Young, a member of the black community and then U.S. ambassador to the UN, said:
“ There are hundreds, maybe even thousands, of political prisoners in American prisons.” This sentence earned him immediate dismissal by President Carter.
Of course, there can be no political prisoners in the United States, a country of free speech.
@ -611,7 +611,7 @@ Still behind bars are the leader of 1 American Indian Movement, Leonard Peltier
All were victims of fbi set-ups.
/section{Elmer “ Geronimo ” Pratt}
\section{Elmer “ Geronimo ” Pratt}
After twenty-six years in prison, fourteen applications for parole denied, and four unsuccessful appeals, Elmer “ Geronimo ” Pratt was released on bail on June 10, 1997, pending a new trial that is intended to be impartial.
@ -650,7 +650,7 @@ And also an immense encouragement to continue the struggles for the release of o
/section{Leonard Peltier}
\section{Leonard Peltier}
Leonard Peltier, an Anishinabe-Lakota (Sioux) Indian, has been one of the leaders of the American Indian Movement (AIM) since 1970.
@ -674,7 +674,7 @@ The only hope left for Leonard Peltier is in the hands of President Clinton, who
339 The Freedom of Information Act, passed by Congress in 1966 and amended in 1974 in a liberal sense, guarantees every American citizen the right of access to “records” and other “information” in the possession of authorities that would or would have harmed him.
/section{Mumia Abu Jamal}
\section{Mumia Abu Jamal}
Mumia Abu Jamal was raised in Philadelphia. He was a founding member (at age 15) of the Philadelphia Black Panther Committee.
@ -708,13 +708,13 @@ At the time of writing (February 1998), the Pennsylvania Supreme Court is consid
In the event of a rejection, which would be followed by an execution warrant, a final appeal could be made at the federal level.
From the depths of his cell, for 16 years, Mumia has never stopped writing articles and campaigning for justice and against racism.
He wrote two very important books: /emph{Live from the Death Row} which was translated and edited in France under the title:
/emph{En direct du couloir de la mort} (Éditions La Découverte) and /emph{Death Blossoms} (The Plough Publishing House Editors, Farmington PA, USA).
He wrote two very important books: \emph{Live from the Death Row} which was translated and edited in France under the title:
\emph{En direct du couloir de la mort} (Éditions La Découverte) and \emph{Death Blossoms} (The Plough Publishing House Editors, Farmington PA, USA).
Robert Pac
Robert Pac is a journalist, engaged for more than 25 years in the struggle alongside blacks, Indians and members of other ethnic minorities in the three Americas.
He is the author of /emph{Les guerres indiennes aujourd'hui}(Indians wars today) published by Messidor.
He is the author of \emph{Les guerres indiennes aujourd'hui}(Indians wars today) published by Messidor.
*Base bail in the original, very likely typo so corrected in the translation
10
23 Centenary of a genocide in Cuba. Weyler's « reconcentration », Jean Laïlle.txt
@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ It was therefore arbitrarily translated under the spelling “reconcentration”
/section{A colony on hold}
\section{A colony on hold}
In the seventeenth century Cuba was already the world's leading producer of cane sugar, the profitability of black slaves on the immense estates of the Spanish colony having accumulated enough to open, from the first part of the nineteenth century, the era of sugar capitalism in the agrarian sector already existing from Havana to Matanzas.
@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ But let us not anticipate this nineteenth century that saw Cuba repeatedly rebel
/section{The last quarter of an hour}
\section{The last quarter of an hour}
When the Spanish administration was characterized by corruption and absolutism faced with the exploits of the liberators of the mainland of the empire, it was in full reaction of the affluent sectors combined with a deep popular discontent that broke out in 1868 the first war of independence observed with suspicion by the United States, which refused their approval and with indifference with the Europeans.
@ -132,7 +132,7 @@ The general, his great-grandson, was born in Palma de Mallorca to a military doc
/section{A real genocide}
\section{A real genocide}
This measure was applied during the 2 years that Weyler's mission to Cuba lasted, 1896 and 1897. There is even a trace of it in the archives of the Cuban railway.
@ -195,7 +195,7 @@ More astonishing is the figure of 1758 North Americans reported in December 1897
344 1,5 kilograms, old castillan measure unit.
/section{And the U.S. wins the bet}
\section{And the U.S. wins the bet}
We know the rest.
@ -214,7 +214,7 @@ Present in the port of Havana since January 25, 1898, the armoured cruiser “Ma
“Everything is quiet here!” said press reporter Hearst from Havana to his boss, who replied: "Send pictures and I'll give war!"
The legal instrument that President McKinley obtained from Congress, the famous "Joint Resolution," made it clear that "the right of Cubans to be free" depended on "the ability granted to the President of the United States to have the resources necessary to intervene in the Cuban War of Independence and pacify the country.”
In their book, /emph{Chemins pour le sucre}(Paths for Sugar), Oscar Zanetti and Alejandro Garcia (345) add to the above:
In their book, \emph{Chemins pour le sucre}(Paths for Sugar), Oscar Zanetti and Alejandro Garcia (345) add to the above:
“The treacherous tactic of the U.S. military command of the island was to deny belligerence to the Cuban forces, relying separately on their various local leaders and, once the Spanish rout was acquired, to prohibit the entry of Cuban fighters into the main cities in order to prevent the Spanish army from capitulating to the patriots... (which) were excluded from the signing of the protocol ratifying the Spanish surrender.
Thus the sovereignty of the islands passed from the hands of Spanish colonialism to those of North American imperialism.
The Treaty of Paris, formally inspired by “humanitarian principles and high social and moral duties,” actually concealed the U.S. military occupation of Cuba for an indefinite time and the acquisition by the Spanish colonies of the Caribbean and pacific as spoils of war.”
@ -18,12 +18,12 @@ such as the Caniba (Martinique, Guadeloupe), the Puelches, Picunches, Tehuelches
such as the Araucans (Chile) whose resistance and courage stunned the conquerors commanded by Valdivia who paid with his life for his obstinacy;
such as the Chibchas (Colombia) who intervened in the penetration of the military columns of Jimenez de Quesada in search of the “Eldorado ” ” (347).
346 “Report of the Dominicans of the Spanish Isle to M. de Chievres » (1519) in /emph{Las Casas et la défense des Indiens}(Las Casas and the defense of the Indians), Julliard, Éd., Paris, 1971.
347 Félix Reichlen, in /emph{Les Amérindiens et leur extermination délibérée}(Thez Indians and their deliberate extermination), Éd. Pierre-Marcel Fabre, Lausanne, 1987.
346 “Report of the Dominicans of the Spanish Isle to M. de Chievres » (1519) in \emph{Las Casas et la défense des Indiens}(Las Casas and the defense of the Indians), Julliard, Éd., Paris, 1971.
347 Félix Reichlen, in \emph{Les Amérindiens et leur extermination délibérée}(Thez Indians and their deliberate extermination), Éd. Pierre-Marcel Fabre, Lausanne, 1987.
/section{Brazil}
\section{Brazil}
When the Portuguese “discovered” Brazil in 1500, it was populated by about 3 million Indians. In 1940, they were estimated at 500,000.
By 1950, there were only 150,000. Today, there may be only 100,000 of them. The magnitude of the genocide can be measured.
@ -80,12 +80,12 @@ Massacres of Indians by the Guatemalan army and “anti-riot” militias have in
Everywhere in South America, massacres of Indians are reported. In Colombia, Peru, Chile...
Indians are victims of multinational corporations and the “big stick” policy whereby the United States has a de facto right to scrutinize and intervene in the political development of these countries.
348 Félix Reichlen in /emph{op. cit.}
348 Félix Reichlen in \emph{op. cit.}
/section{United States}
\section{United States}
In the current territory of the United States, estimates of the population at the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in the early 17th century have long been imprecise.
But we now agree on the figure of 10 to 12 million individuals.
16
25 Capitalism to the assault of Asia, Yves Grenet.txt
@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ The Chinese fought against Russia, which was still largely pre-capitalist, and o
As for Japan, it had as early as 1638 forbidden any foreigner access to its soil, as well as any travel outside the country to the subjects of the Empire, which was intended to protect an independence hostile to any change.
/section{Asia colonized by Western capitalism}
\section{Asia colonized by Western capitalism}
Before the nineteenth century already a number of human lives had been mowed in Asia by the irruption of the Europeans, their desire to conquer at the expense of the Asians and the conflicts between themselves, in which they had dragged them.
Already some of the wealth of these peoples had been drained to the West, making their contribution to the primitive accumulation necessary for the great start of liberal capitalism.
@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ European capitalism is now established for a long time in Asia.
The British East India Company saw its commercial privilege and its right to administer the vast Indian complex renewed in 1833 and again in 1853.
However, the liberation movement was already brewing against the domination of the English. In 1857, the revolt of the cipayes, part of their troops, broke out, whose uprising made London tremble.
It was drowned in blood: 320,000 Indians were executed, including 200,000 civilians. The East India Company, with structures so far removed from liberalism, was dissolved in 1858.
The advent of liberalism was marked by the opening of land to British colonists and to the capitalist interests of Great Britain acting on the spot through their representatives (/emph{managing agencies}).
The advent of liberalism was marked by the opening of land to British colonists and to the capitalist interests of Great Britain acting on the spot through their representatives (\emph{managing agencies}).
Peasants whose land escaped the greed of the colonizers had their rural economy monetized so that they could pay taxes, first to the Company and then to the administration of the Crown.
Terrible famines took place in 1860, 1866, 1873, 1877 whose deaths numbered in the millions. The last of these famines coincided with the festivities that made Queen Victoria the Empress of India.
@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ But, unlike China where the Tai Ping revolt did not succeed in the 50s, the shog
/section{Birth and development of an Asian capitalism}
\section{Birth and development of an Asian capitalism}
Capitalism was able to prevail in other continents through the revolutions of England, America and France of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the bourgeoisies of these countries having used popular movements to impose themselves as a ruling class.
On the other hand, the establishment of an Asian capitalism paradoxically began with a monarchical restoration.
@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ The Indian bourgeoisie also acquired certain structures, such as the Madras Trad
In the colonial countries the bourgeoisie is above all a comprador bourgeoisie at the service of foreign capitalism and the one that works for the establishment of national enterprises remains limited.
/section{Rivalries between capitalisms in Asia}
\section{Rivalries between capitalisms in Asia}
“There is room in Asia for all of us,” proclaimed Lord Salisbury in 1880.
Even if “all of us” meant Western capitalist states, it was already an optimistic view, as the rivalries in Southeast Asia at the same time showed.
@ -208,7 +208,7 @@ After the assassination of many politicians by young officers in February l936,
An engagement between Chinese and Japanese troops in July 1937 near Beijing (Beijing) was used by the militarists to launch Japan into an assault on China.
/section{Japanese imperialism, liberation movements and the end of colonization in Asia}
\section{Japanese imperialism, liberation movements and the end of colonization in Asia}
World War II began on Asian soil in 1937.
Japanese troops advanced in 1937-1938 in northern China, in the Yangtze River basin and around Guangzhou.
@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ On the side of the Chongqing government, the “big four families” (Chen, Jian
Runaway inflation is ravaging Nationalist China. It is strong in Japan and very strong in India.
Wages do not follow. Peasants, workers and the middle classes are suffering from living conditions worse than ever.
In addition to the direct victims of the fighting, the Henan famine killed four million people in 1942, the Bengal famine at least three million in 1942-1943 and the Tonkin famine two million in 1944.
So many victims who will never have a place on any war memorial but deserve to be included in this /emph{Black Book}.
So many victims who will never have a place on any war memorial but deserve to be included in this \emph{Black Book}.
When Japanese forces were forced to retreat everywhere, the American atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and Japan was forced to surrender in August 1945, the face of Asia was changed forever.
The Japanese had, as in China, installed governments to their devotion in Burma, Vietnam, the Philippines and Indonesia and some nationalists from these countries had agreed to follow them.
@ -258,7 +258,7 @@ After an attempt to form a coalition government, civil war resumed in late 1946.
Shenyang (Mukden), Beijing (Beijing), Nanjing, Shanghai and Wuhan. With the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, and despite the maintenance of a “national capitalism”, Chinese capitalism seemed to have its heyday behind it.
/section{The capitalist economies of post-war Asia}
\section{The capitalist economies of post-war Asia}
By the end of World War, Japan had lost 2 million dead and its economy was in ruins. The American occupiers wanted to dismantle the financial power of the zaibatsu.
The companies had to hand over their shares to the authorities and were decalcified.
@ -348,7 +348,7 @@ Bankruptcies, the cessation of foreign investment have led to layoffs, unemploym
Asian capitalism rallied to neoliberalism no longer appears as the model that it was enough to imitate for the Third World to access a real development.
/section{What is the future of capitalism in Asia?}
\section{What is the future of capitalism in Asia?}
Asia played a key role in the peoples' claim to independence after the Second World War.
The 29 Asian and African countries meeting in Bandung in 1955 had demanded an end to colonialism and the right of the new States to assume their independence.
16
26 Migrations in the XIXth and XXth century contribution to capitalism's history, Caroline Andréani.txt
@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ Over the period in question, I will propose a classification — with the limits
colonial migration, economic migration, and political migration. The two can also be combined.
/section{Colonial migration}
\section{Colonial migration}
Colonial migrations were initiated by the colonization of the Americas as early as the sixteenth century. While population flows are regular, they remain limited by the weakness of technical means.
It is estimated that the number of Spaniards who went to colonize Latin America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries amounted to 2 million individuals, the Portuguese to 1 million.
@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ Population flows were less to these continents than to the Americas.
Despite a strong ideological incitement, textbooks, colonial exhibitions, travelogues of geographical societies, religious propaganda magnifying the colonial enterprise, the millions of Europeans who were candidates for emigration preferred in their majority other destinations.
Economic necessity drove Europeans to leave for the colonies.
The testimony of Marguerite Duras on the small French settlers in Indochina (350), that of Simenon in his report published in 1932 in /emph{Voilà} on colonial Africa, clearly show the springs of these departures:
The testimony of Marguerite Duras on the small French settlers in Indochina (350), that of Simenon in his report published in 1932 in \emph{Voilà} on colonial Africa, clearly show the springs of these departures:
a blocked future in metropolitan France, the possibility of living better in countries where, even without money, the European inevitably has an advantage over the colonized.
In his report entitled “The Hour of the Negro”, Simenon leaves no ambiguity. :
“ He (the European settler) will also leave because there, he has a boy who waxes his shoes and he can yell at him!
@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ Let us bet that the current situation in New Caledonia, a consequence of the imp
349 Figures on trafficking are controversial, with some putting forward the highly unlikely estimate of 100 million Africans deported.
This does not stand up to analysis, especially when one takes into account the population density of Africa and the transport capacities of ships crossing the Atlantic.
350 /emph{Le barrage contre le Pacifique}(The dam against the Pacific)Paris, 1950
350 \emph{Le barrage contre le Pacifique}(The dam against the Pacific)Paris, 1950
351 The last Tasmanian died in 1874.
352 At the end of the eighteenth century, the Aborigines were probably between 300,000 and 400,000 spread throughout the country. In 1989, there were 40,000 and 30,000 mixed.
Recently, the Australian government was questioned about a policy carried out since the 1950s which consisted of removing Aboriginal children from their families and entrusting them to state institutions...
@ -106,13 +106,13 @@ At the beginning of the nineteenth century, before the arrival of the British, t
Confined to the Cape Province, it then included 80,000 people, including about 16,000 Europeans.
354 The ravages of phylloxera in the vineyards (1878) actually pushed many wine farmers from the Midi to settle in Algeria.
355 Europeans were 109,000 in 1847, 272,000 in 1872, 578,000 in 1896, 829,000 in 1921, 984,000 in 1954.
* (/emph{Petits blancs} in the original, whose literal translation is /emph{little whites}, an expression refering to poor whites settlers.
* (\emph{Petits blancs} in the original, whose literal translation is \emph{little whites}, an expression refering to poor whites settlers.
White trash sounded too lumpen, little sounded like it was referring to height.)
*(2) DOM-TOM :/emph{ Départements d'Outre Mer-Territoires d'Outre Mer} which means oversea departments- oversea territories.
*(2) DOM-TOM :\emph{ Départements d'Outre Mer-Territoires d'Outre Mer} which means oversea departments- oversea territories.
/section{Economic migration}
\section{Economic migration}
European migration took on a truly massive character from the second half of the nineteenth century onwards with the industrial revolution that transformed the economies of some Western European countries - first and foremost England, Germany and France - mostly rural into economies of an industrial nature.
@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ This is the case whenever a farm is too small to support the family. In some ca
/section{Politically motivated migration}
\section{Politically motivated migration}
Politically motivated migration is a thing of history. Many could be cited.
They result in massive migrations of populations, some of which disappear almost completely from the places where they traditionally lived.
@ -216,7 +216,7 @@ Currently, peoples and their leaders have fewer and fewer demands in terms of re
Many countries are experiencing situations of implosion, which result in internal conflicts and the departure of population groups: this is the case in Mauritania, Rwanda, Burundi...
/section{The current situation}
\section{The current situation}
While Europeans made up the bulk of migrants in the nineteenth century, from the 1920s to the 1930s, flows became scarce.
The great change came after the Second World War: it was then the peoples of other continents who became candidates for migration.
22
27 Capitalism, armament race and arms trade, Yves Grenet.txt
@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ That is to say that it was born with class societies.
Subsequently, whether in Antiquity, the Middle Ages or in Modern Times, armaments and wars continued their career, the improvements of the former (old war machines, artillery, firearms, etc.) allowing the successes of the latter.
The progress of science and technology, accelerated from the eighteenth century, play a role but the relations of production are even more important.
The Prussian general and philosopher Karl von Clausewitz wrote in his master work, /emph{On War}, in 1827, during the period of the rise of capitalism in Europe, that war “is a conflict of great interests which is resolved only with bloodshed, and which differs only in this precisely from all the other conflicts that arise between men.
The Prussian general and philosopher Karl von Clausewitz wrote in his master work, \emph{On War}, in 1827, during the period of the rise of capitalism in Europe, that war “is a conflict of great interests which is resolved only with bloodshed, and which differs only in this precisely from all the other conflicts that arise between men.
It has much less to do with the arts and sciences than with commerce, which is also a conflict of great interests, but it is much closer to politics, which is itself a kind of commerce with enlarged dimensions, in which it develops like the child in its mother's womb.”
He added in another place, studying the wars of the Revolution:
“We must attribute the new facts that manifest themselves in the military field much less to inventions and new military ideas than to this change in the social state and social relations.”
@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ This trade thus contributed to bloody it on an unknown scale before capitalism e
/section{Rise of capitalism and the first arms race}
\section{Rise of capitalism and the first arms race}
The progress of industrial capitalism in Western Europe, in the second half of the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth, also applied to the manufacture of armaments.
Until then, weapons came mainly from the royal arsenals of the time of mercantilism.
@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ Under the Consulate and the Empire, industry modernized at least in some of its
Armament holds its place and makes the prosperity of some capitalists such as the manufacturer of cannonballs Jean-Nicolas Gendarme.
The Parisian banks helped to make a place for themselves in the sun a less efficient steel industry while its English rival and a copper industry supplying the imperial army and navy.
On the other side, “the war coincided with the emergence of Britain as the dominant industrial power in the world,” as A. D. Harvey (/emph{Collision of Empires}) notes.
On the other side, “the war coincided with the emergence of Britain as the dominant industrial power in the world,” as A. D. Harvey (\emph{Collision of Empires}) notes.
Military inventions are made there such as the new artillery munition invented in 1803 by Henry Shrapnel; shrapnel was successfully used in the bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807 and Vimeiro in 1808.
English ships are reinforced with iron pieces. In 1806 out of 305,000 tons of iron produced in British factories 56,000 were for the war needs of the government.
From 1803 to 1815 the British manufactured 2,700,000 firearms and bought 293,000 abroad.
@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ The “cavalry of Saint George”, which British capitalism has always been able
/section{Development of capitalism and armaments during the nineteenth century}
\section{Development of capitalism and armaments during the nineteenth century}
Capitalism continued to flourish after the Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815.
The Holy Alliance (September 1815) contained too many elements of the past to be entirely favorable to it, and the ideology of the Liberals was better suited to it.
@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ they were denied permission. But the idea of chemical warfare, which industrial
The interdependence of armaments and capitalism manifested itself with great clarity during the Civil War, a confrontation of Yankee capitalism and the slave-owning South, in certain aspects that were still pre-capitalist.
The industrial advances made by the United States have allowed the adoption of the rifle rifled with very precise fire, the loading of cannons by the breech, the use of mortars, the use of repeating weapons.
Both North and South had advanced steam warships, including ironclads or battleships, including the /emph{Merrimac} among the Confederates and /emph{the Monitor} among Union supporters.
Both North and South had advanced steam warships, including ironclads or battleships, including the \emph{Merrimac} among the Confederates and \emph{the Monitor} among Union supporters.
In many respects, even more so than those of the Revolution and empire, it was an all-out war, which left more than 500,000 dead on both sides, heralding the great killings of the world wars.
@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ It is consubstantial with it as the production of armaments.
/section{New Arms Race and World War II}
\section{New Arms Race and World War II}
At the end of the war, Western imperialisms were both victorious and challenged by the Russian Revolution and those that followed it (Germany, Hungary).
The Allies' intervention against the Soviets uses the same weapons that served in the Great War, including chemical weapons, is generally modestly ignored.
@ -285,7 +285,7 @@ The end of the Second World War also marked the beginning of the nuclear age.
/section{The Cold War Arms Race}
\section{The Cold War Arms Race}
The Allies have won but only the Westerners recognize themselves in capitalism.
The USSR, whose Red Army bore the main weight of the land war in Europe and advanced as far as Berlin, appears to them as a foreign body that will have to be weakened and eliminated.
@ -385,7 +385,7 @@ Annual world military expenditure (in billions of constant 1980 US dollars)
/section{End of the Cold War and maintenance of military-industrial complexes}
\section{End of the Cold War and maintenance of military-industrial complexes}
The arms race at the time of the Cold War opened a new stage in the evolution of capitalism.
@ -410,7 +410,7 @@ The France pursued a policy of independent military production, reflecting Gaull
Concentrations have taken place within the national framework:
merger of Daimler Benz and Messerschmitt, merger of Krupp Maschinenbau and Rheinmetall in 1990, absorption of Ferranti and Plessey by GEC, current desire to bring Aerospace and Dassault closer together despite the reluctance of the latter.
But /emph{these} mergers increasingly involve companies from different European countries.
But \emph{these} mergers increasingly involve companies from different European countries.
Siemens shares with GEC the remains of Plessey, Thomson buys the great Dutch specialist in military electronics HSA, the Belgian arms industry disappears absorbed in particular by the French.
Matra and British Aerospace created in 1996 a joint company Matra Bae Dynamics, which comes immediately after Raython Hughes for the manufacture of missiles.
Non-European firms participated in the movement: the Canadian company Bombardier took over Shorts, the largest armaments firm in Northern Ireland and the Bruges armoured manufacturer in Belgium, the American United Technologies 40% of the capital of the British Westland.
@ -508,7 +508,7 @@ The arms race continues with research, particularly in the United States and Fra
Will imperialisms in the time of globalization continue to reach an agreement among themselves in the face of the peoples or will their oppositions prevail, their contradictions making the struggle of peoples easier but also increasing the danger of war?
/section{Capitalism and the arms trade}
\section{Capitalism and the arms trade}
Under capitalism, weapons are commodities but not commodities like any other.
@ -542,7 +542,7 @@ During the nineteenth century weapons were sold by the producing countries of Eu
Colonial powers sometimes provided them to adversaries of competing countries as part of their rivalries.
The capitalist states deliver them to the countries taking part in the Balkan wars or to their future allies in the war of 1914-1918 (they are sometimes the same).
The 1920s and 1930s were the great period of the “cannon merchants”. The two Chaco wars of 1928-1929 and 1932-1935 between Bolivia and Paraguay, which were in fact wars between capitalist oil interests to exploit this territory, allowed these merchants to supply both sides largely: they were particularly bloody.
The role of these “gun dealers” was such that in the United States a special committee was created in 1934 by Senator George Norris to investigate with Gerald P. Nye the role of American ammunition manufacturers, while the famous special issue of Fortune, “/emph{Arms and the Men}” and the book /emph{Merchants of Death, Iron, Blood and Profits}, a title that deserved to be reported in this Black Book, having been chosen in the largest capitalist country in the world about armaments.
The role of these “gun dealers” was such that in the United States a special committee was created in 1934 by Senator George Norris to investigate with Gerald P. Nye the role of American ammunition manufacturers, while the famous special issue of Fortune, “\emph{Arms and the Men}” and the book \emph{Merchants of Death, Iron, Blood and Profits}, a title that deserved to be reported in this Black Book, having been chosen in the largest capitalist country in the world about armaments.
The Cold War gave an unprecedented boost to the arms trade on both sides. The Americans supplied them to western European countries as part of their policy of containment of the danger represented by the East.
They supplied their allies in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, sending arms flows around the world called "military aid."
@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ Because as we approach the year 2000, two billion men, women and children are ma
Half of them don't even know if she will be able to eat properly the next day.
/section{1. — 1945-1990: recolonization, a prelude to globalisation}
\section{1. — 1945-1990: recolonization, a prelude to globalisation}
The globalization of capital, defined empirically and progressively in the context of U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War, was one of the goals of the “Bretton Woods institutions.”
The strategy of these aid and cooperation agencies quickly became aggressive. With some adjustments and a few squeaks, these agencies have become tools of American hegemony.
@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ The deadly effects of this system of predation are so destructive, so profound a
/section{2. — Ecological crisis, private profit and forced rural exodus}
\section{2. — Ecological crisis, private profit and forced rural exodus}
The ecological balance sheet of Europe's industrial development is well established: the old continent is showing definitive wounds:
mowed down by intensive agriculture, soiled by urbanization, tied up by its network of highways, traversed by cesspools that once bore the names of rivers, this disfigured land bears the traces of a thousand years' struggle.
@ -273,7 +273,7 @@ When the IMF suggested that the Rao government lower the minimum working age and
To date, no international convention has succeeded in concretely resolving the problem of the exponential increase in child labour, which amounts to slavery authorized by the States concerned.
/section{Conclusion: Crime will not always pay}
\section{Conclusion: Crime will not always pay}
An unknown number of deaths, killed by famine or the diseases of poverty; a worsening at the planetary level of the polarization of wealth;
nearly half a billion poor peasants driven from their land by speculation, major works, big landowners or the army. In the name of the dynamics of the “free market”.
@ -306,16 +306,16 @@ Ultraliberal capitalism does not create its own gravediggers. It digs its own gr
Philippe Paraire
Philippe Paraire is the author of /emph{L'environnement expliqué aux enfants}[The environment explained to children], Hachette-Jeunesse, 1990, coll. “Réponses aux petits curieux”;
/emph{L'Utopie Verte, écologie des riches, écologie des pauvres}[Green Utopia, ecology of the rich, ecology of the poor], Hachette, 1993, coll. “Pluriel”; /emph{Le Village monde et son château, essai contre le FMI, l'OMC et la Banque Mondiale}[The World Village and its castle, an essay against the IMF, the WTO and the World Bank], Le Temps des Cerises, 1995.
Philippe Paraire is the author of \emph{L'environnement expliqué aux enfants}[The environment explained to children], Hachette-Jeunesse, 1990, coll. “Réponses aux petits curieux”;
\emph{L'Utopie Verte, écologie des riches, écologie des pauvres}[Green Utopia, ecology of the rich, ecology of the poor], Hachette, 1993, coll. “Pluriel”; \emph{Le Village monde et son château, essai contre le FMI, l'OMC et la Banque Mondiale}[The World Village and its castle, an essay against the IMF, the WTO and the World Bank], Le Temps des Cerises, 1995.
/section{Bibliography}
\section{Bibliography}
François Chesnais, /emph{La mondialisation du capital}[Capital's globalization}, Syros, 1994.
Susan George, /emph{crédits sans frontières}[Credits Without Borders], La Découverte, 1994.
René Dumont, /emph{La croissance... de la famine!}[Growth...of starvation!], Seuil, 1975.
Eisa Assidon, /emph{Les théorie économiques du développement}[Economic theories of development], La Découverte, 1992.
Pascal Arnaud, /emph{La dette du Tiers Monde}|The Third World's debt], La Découverte, 1984.
François Chesnais, \emph{La mondialisation du capital}[Capital's globalization}, Syros, 1994.
Susan George, \emph{crédits sans frontières}[Credits Without Borders], La Découverte, 1994.
René Dumont, \emph{La croissance... de la famine!}[Growth...of starvation!], Seuil, 1975.
Eisa Assidon, \emph{Les théorie économiques du développement}[Economic theories of development], La Découverte, 1992.
Pascal Arnaud, \emph{La dette du Tiers Monde}|The Third World's debt], La Découverte, 1984.
28
29 Capital's globalization and root causes of barbary's threats, François Chesnais.txt
Capital's globalization and root causes of barbary's threats, François Chesnais
Here we are in the era of the globalization of capital. In the coming years, the facts to be recorded in the /emph{Black Book of Capitalism} could be among the most terrifying in its history.
Here we are in the era of the globalization of capital. In the coming years, the facts to be recorded in the \emph{Black Book of Capitalism} could be among the most terrifying in its history.
Philippe Paraire began the work in his contribution. I will come back later on the conclusions of Claude Meillassoux's last book.
My task here is to try to define the new configuration of imperialism and the particular regime of accumulation that corresponds to it.
@ -23,14 +23,14 @@ In France, the terrain of the great struggles of 1936 and 1945, there have long
Pierre Bourdieu, for whom I also have the greatest respect, is wrong to dismiss the question of capitalism and its overcoming and to focus on neo-liberalism.
But he is far from being the only one on the left to mourn the death of a “civilization of public service” specific to our country, extended at most to a few countries in Europe.
361 See the conclusion of Ellen Meiksing Woods' important book, /emph{Democracy against Capitalism}, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
361 See the conclusion of Ellen Meiksing Woods' important book, \emph{Democracy against Capitalism}, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
/section{The topicality of the notion of parasitism}
\section{The topicality of the notion of parasitism}
The title of Chapter VIII of /emph{Imperialism, the Supreme Stage of Capitalism}, “the parasitism and putrefaction of capitalism” has always greatly embarrassed the theoreticians of the Western communist parties.
The title of Chapter VIII of \emph{Imperialism, the Supreme Stage of Capitalism}, “the parasitism and putrefaction of capitalism” has always greatly embarrassed the theoreticians of the Western communist parties.
That was true yesterday. At the time the “peaceful coexistence” with capitalism, as well as its various avatars, could hardly be based on the sole defense of the “socialist homeland”.
Even dominated by “American imperialism”, the system with which coexistence was defended had to have something, however limited, of “positive”;
that it still seems likely to offer the working class and its allied social strata some prospects for improving their material and moral conditions of existence.
@ -89,8 +89,8 @@ But the dividends received as a drain on the profits of industrial groups have b
It is the level and regularity of dividend flows that audit committees are tasked with relentlessly monitoring.
362 I would like to refer to the second structured and amplified edition of my book, /emph{La Mondialisation du Capital}[The globalization of Capital], Éditions Syros, Paris, 1997.
363 See Georges Maarek, /emph{L'économie de l'enlisement : intérêt, change, emploi dans les années quatre-vingt-dix}[The stalemate economy: interest, change, employment in the nineties], Economica, Paris, 1997.
362 I would like to refer to the second structured and amplified edition of my book, \emph{La Mondialisation du Capital}[The globalization of Capital], Éditions Syros, Paris, 1997.
363 See Georges Maarek, \emph{L'économie de l'enlisement : intérêt, change, emploi dans les années quatre-vingt-dix}[The stalemate economy: interest, change, employment in the nineties], Economica, Paris, 1997.
@ -123,11 +123,11 @@ Yet the essence of Voltaire's tale, Candide, relates to the permanent violation
It is possible, of course, that Western pensions will be paid on the basis of the labor of the Chinese masses.
But for now, all is certainly not well in the world of global capital. And the political risks of globalization are being speciously minimized.”
364 See the article I published in /emph{Le Monde Diplomatique}, April 1997.
364 See the article I published in \emph{Le Monde Diplomatique}, April 1997.
/section{Industrial capital in a context of rentier-dominated accumulation}
\section{Industrial capital in a context of rentier-dominated accumulation}
Industrial groups have been the main beneficiaries of the liberalization of investment and trade so vaunted by the champions of globalized capitalism.
They have used it to pose to their employees both the threat and the effective implementation of relocation of production to countries where labour is cheap and employees have little or no protection.
@ -161,10 +161,10 @@ At rates and under conditions that have varied widely across OECD countries —
They were able to do so all the more easily as liberalization led to a form of constitution of the industrial reserve army as a “world army”.
Relocations, both in the form of direct investment and international subcontracting, allow industrial groups to draw on the world's reserves of diversely skilled workers, without having to emigrate them to metropolitan areas, but also using them to begin the process of internationally aligning wages with the lowest levels, with a given qualification.
365 See Thomas Couterot's book, /emph{L'entreprise néo-libérale, nouvelle utopie capitaliste ?}[The neoliberal enterprise, new capitalist utopia?], Éditions La Découverte, Paris, 1998.
365 See Thomas Couterot's book, \emph{L'entreprise néo-libérale, nouvelle utopie capitaliste ?}[The neoliberal enterprise, new capitalist utopia?], Éditions La Découverte, Paris, 1998.
/section{Countries under imperialist domination within a shrinking system}
\section{Countries under imperialist domination within a shrinking system}
On the basis of mainly political criteria, Lenin characterized imperialism as “reaction on the whole line.”
@ -215,13 +215,13 @@ I will be told that these are typically “leftist” exaggerations. Maybe.
But let no one come and tell us later “that he was not informed”, that he had “not understood”. This time the massive death chambers of capital are public and are shown in the reports, just as it is in full view of the whole world that the Gulag is perpetuated in China.
But there are still few people who are ready to associate these facts with a serious characterization of this capitalism to which we are urgently invited to “adapt” since socialism would be at best a utopia, at worst the announcement of a new totalitarianism.
366 See Chapters 1 and 12 of /emph{The Globalization of Capital}, op. cit.
367 See my article in /emph{Carré Rouge}, n° 7, March 1997 (P.O. Box 125, 75463, Paris Cedex 10).
368 Claude Meillassoux, /emph{L'économie de la vie}[The economy of life], Cahiers Libres, Éditions Page 2, Lausanne, 1997.
366 See Chapters 1 and 12 of \emph{The Globalization of Capital}, op. cit.
367 See my article in \emph{Carré Rouge}, n° 7, March 1997 (P.O. Box 125, 75463, Paris Cedex 10).
368 Claude Meillassoux, \emph{L'économie de la vie}[The economy of life], Cahiers Libres, Éditions Page 2, Lausanne, 1997.
/section{To conclude}
\section{To conclude}
It is more necessary than ever to continue to update the black book of capitalism, begun since the Americas fell under the double control of merchant capitalism and the Church.
8
30 Swiss bankers kill without machine guns, Jean Ziegler.txt
@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ Here are examples referring to an analysis period of just over ten years.
/section{1. Filipinos}
\section{1. Filipinos}
In 1986, Ferdinand Edralin Marcos again rigged the national elections. One too many times... The popular insurrection sweeps Manila.
At dawn on February 25, the American protector ordered to flee: helicopters of the United States Air Force landed on the grass of Malacanang Palace.
@ -173,7 +173,7 @@ In the spring of 1998, only a small fraction of the loot returned to the Philipp
/section{2. Haitians}
\section{2. Haitians}
Spring 1986: Another dictator falls. “Baby Doc” Duvalier is kicked out of his palace in Port-au-Prince like trash.
@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ Meanwhile, “Baby Doc” and his clan sink a sumptuous retreat on the mild heig
In 1998, the Duvaliers' fortune, the result of a fierce looting of several decades, still rests on the numbered accounts of major Swiss banks.
/section{3. The Zairians, now Congolese}
\section{3. The Zairians, now Congolese}
The Zairian people are beggars sitting on a pile of gold. The Zairian subcontinent, 2.3 million square kilometers large, is full of wealth.
Multinational mining, banking and foreign commercial companies, in perfect collaboration with the local oligarchy, conscientiously plunder the country.
@ -284,5 +284,5 @@ Like Moloch, the Swiss multinational banking oligarchy feeds on the flesh, the b
Jean Ziegler
Jean Ziegler is a Member of Parliament for Geneva in the Parliament of the Swiss Confederation; Professor of Sociology at the University of Geneva.
He has just published: /emph{Les Seigneurs du Crime, les nouvelles mafias contre la démocratie}[The Crime Lords, new mafias against democracy], Éditions du Seuil 1998, 308 pages.
He has just published: \emph{Les Seigneurs du Crime, les nouvelles mafias contre la démocratie}[The Crime Lords, new mafias against democracy], Éditions du Seuil 1998, 308 pages.
40
31 An ad is worth a thousand bombs Advertising's crimes in modern warfare Yves Frémion.txt
@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ It first invaded the countries that were little, but also, in the countries of t
Education, health, information, everything has been delivered to profitability, market share, commercial success, immediacy.
The armed arm of this colonial conquest is advertising, which prepares minds by its incessant bludgeoning and kills more massively than a bomb drop.
One of its main actors, Oliviero Toscani, whom his scandalous campaigns for Benetton made famous, lists himself in his book /emph{La pub est une charogne qui nous sourit}[Advertising is a carrion that smiles at us] (Hoëbeke ed., 1995), where he willingly spits into the soup that made his fortune:
One of its main actors, Oliviero Toscani, whom his scandalous campaigns for Benetton made famous, lists himself in his book \emph{La pub est une charogne qui nous sourit}[Advertising is a carrion that smiles at us] (Hoëbeke ed., 1995), where he willingly spits into the soup that made his fortune:
“Advertising now lines every street corner, every historic square, every square, bus stops, the metro, airports, train stations, newspapers, cafes, pharmacies, tobacconists, lighters, phone cards,
it cuts movies on TV, invades radios, magazines, beaches, sports, clothes, even the footprints of the soles of our shoes, our whole universe, the whole planet! (...)
It's Big Brother, always smiling! I find it frightening that all this huge space of expression, exhibition and display, the largest living museum of modern art, a hundred thousand times Beaubourg and the Museum of Contemporary Art in New York combined, these thousands of square kilometers of posters plastered all over the world, these giant panels, these painted slogans, these hundreds of thousands of pages of printed newspapers, these hundreds of hours of television, of radio messages, remain reserved for this imbecile, unreal and misleading paradisiacal imagery... ”.
@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ The following examples show the extent and coherence of this offensive.
/section{Education}
\section{Education}
In the USA, the wiring of primary schools was not carried out by public authorities, but by private firms.
They equipped the schools free of charge but, in exchange, the educational programmes with
@ -51,19 +51,19 @@ the same youth beverage companies (Coca, Fanta), install “free” distributors
It is the same for companies that “offer” football jerseys to school children, with their advertising on them naturally;
but it is “free”, and therefore the public service forgets that it is the public service...
Christian De Brie, in /emph{le Monde Diplomatique} wrote a few years ago:
Christian De Brie, in \emph{le Monde Diplomatique} wrote a few years ago:
“Will we one day see the sponsored teacher in schools and the teacher, covered in badges, announce that the arithmetic lesson is “offered” by a brand of electronic games and recreation by a soft drink with a taste of adventure?”
At the time, De Brie was humorous, it is no more.
As for universities, it is common in the USA for chairs to be, especially in economics, financed directly by firms that appoint professors.
As Susan George showed in a resounding article in the same /emph{Monde Diplomatique}, prestigious French intellectuals have already benefited (one of the French champions of the historical revision of the Workers' Movement, François Furet, in the lead).
As Susan George showed in a resounding article in the same \emph{Monde Diplomatique}, prestigious French intellectuals have already benefited (one of the French champions of the historical revision of the Workers' Movement, François Furet, in the lead).
Operation Fukuyama, named after an American state official who wrote “The End of History,” artificially highlighted by a brilliant publicity stunt, was entirely organized by the chemical firm Olin;
like that of the Heidelberg Appeal was fabricated by the pharmacy and asbestos lobbies to discredit environmentalists.
Academics in need of funding have lent themselves in both cases, with great complacency, to these manipulations.
/section{Culture and media}
\section{Culture and media}
The American model, where 90% of culture is financed by private companies, has helped European countries dismantle their public funding in this area.
@ -80,9 +80,9 @@ Who can then be surprised that whistleblowers of the dangers of tobacco, one of
For culture, a change of mentality is gradually revealed:
many creators no longer rely on their success with the public, but on the sole satisfaction of the funder, on whom whether the work exists or not depends, with the consequences that we guess for its content.
/emph{sponsoring} now accounts for 75% of TV shows in France (including 20% for stupid games that occupy the most followed slots).
It has gradually replaced, in the eyes of advertisers, advertising /emph{stricto sensu}:
it is a response to the zapping of viewers harassed by advertising, who change channels when it arrives. Now, impossible to escape, advertising is /emph{in] the program!
\emph{sponsoring} now accounts for 75% of TV shows in France (including 20% for stupid games that occupy the most followed slots).
It has gradually replaced, in the eyes of advertisers, advertising \emph{stricto sensu}:
it is a response to the zapping of viewers harassed by advertising, who change channels when it arrives. Now, impossible to escape, advertising is \emph{in] the program!
Worse, nearly 50% of France-Television's budget comes from commercial revenues when in principle there should be 0%...
The climax is called “bartering”; they are simply entire programs offered to the channels, turnkey, already fully realized, with the advertising inside: soap opera, game, documentary show ...
@ -113,14 +113,14 @@ The other animators did not have this modesty.
For zapping fanatics, who change channels as soon as the advertisement interrupts their film, the parade has been found: the ad is no longer in the advertising break, but in the film itself.
The last chic is to buy a few seconds of a film from a “major company” and slip its propaganda into it.
International hits (/emph{Total recall, Back to the Future 2, Day of Turmoil, all James Bond}) are thus full of close-up products with the name of the brand, inserts designed by the firms themselves and no longer by the author, director or producer; the writers, on the other hand, have to adapt their story to this presence that sometimes happens like a hair on the soup.
In France, the two /emph{“Les Visiteurs”}, public triumphs, brought this principle to its climax, using the parody force of effect.
International hits (\emph{Total recall, Back to the Future 2, Day of Turmoil, all James Bond}) are thus full of close-up products with the name of the brand, inserts designed by the firms themselves and no longer by the author, director or producer; the writers, on the other hand, have to adapt their story to this presence that sometimes happens like a hair on the soup.
In France, the two \emph{“Les Visiteurs”}, public triumphs, brought this principle to its climax, using the parody force of effect.
/section{Sport}
\section{Sport}
80% of the /emph{sponsoring} of sport — actually competition and not sports practice — goes to motor sports and the sports programs that show them are sponsored... by the same firms.
80% of the \emph{sponsoring} of sport — actually competition and not sports practice — goes to motor sports and the sports programs that show them are sponsored... by the same firms.
Only one sporting competition, the Prix automobile de Monaco in 1992, saw the same name of a tobacco company appear on the screen... 1134 times, while it is forbidden.
@ -153,17 +153,17 @@ Elsewhere, tennis players are asked to shorten their skirts, to move the consume
But the worst is yet to come, electronic sponsorship. A first attempt took place recently. This consists of adding virtual elements to the actual image.
For example, in a football match broadcast, a 23rd player, entirely electronically made, taps into an equally electronic ball, covered with the advertising of a brand (Axe in this case).
The experiment was refused, but for reasons that were at least light and temporary, according to the director of the French Football Federation:
“We asked for cancellation, as nothing had been negotiated with us. The rights of virtual publicity belong to the F.F.F.” (/emph{Liberation}, February 11, 1998).
“We asked for cancellation, as nothing had been negotiated with us. The rights of virtual publicity belong to the F.F.F.” (\emph{Liberation}, February 11, 1998).
To these cynical remarks responds the attitude of the C.S.A., which, without qualms, had accepted.
How can we be surprised when we know that all the big bosses of Olympism or international federations have been or are linked to the big companies interested, and continue to be paid by them during their mandate.
That juicy contracts are granted to these firms, while those that do not "spit" are ruthlessly eliminated.
If one were to investigate seriously in this area, one would find that politics is comparatively much less corrupt than sport.
We are less surprised then to see the great captains of industry, the kings of corruption in all directions (Tapie, Berlusconi, to name only the best known and convicted) have invested fully in the clubs of which they display themselves the leaders.
“/emph{sponsorship} is a legal way to launder dirty money,” said one European elected official, referring to the close links between sport and mafias.
“\emph{sponsorship} is a legal way to launder dirty money,” said one European elected official, referring to the close links between sport and mafias.
/section{environment and solidarity}
\section{environment and solidarity}
The most polluting companies compete with who will set up the “foundation” or the most dynamic association to help the quality of air, water, landscape, renewable energies or waste recovery.
E.D.F., COGEMA or the chemical industry are all very active in these areas that they destroy on the one hand and help repair on the other, winning in both cases, in brand image or subsidies.
@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ The same, by rendering valuable “services” to more secret agencies, receive
The “African policy” of the France has used this type of relay a lot, under both the right and the left.
/section{Politics}
\section{Politics}
The American and French public naively believed that President Clinton's setbacks with his zipper were a matter of salacious jokes.
@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ We better understand the usefulness of advertising hype to silence (by buying th
/section{Ideology}
\section{Ideology}
Everyone was able to make the comparison between advertising and propaganda, as if there were a difference in nature, while there is only a difference in object, which fades today when politicians (Bush, Gorbachev, Alexander Kwasniewski) praise products in spots, and when others are promoted (which does not mean “promoted”, no offense to the Academy) by famous advertising agencies.
@ -227,7 +227,7 @@ Victory is omnipresent, whether the hero runs or flirts, pilots or confronts a b
Finally, it only plays with stereotypes and each time to push them even deeper into people's heads: male and female stereotypes, nationals, rural, young people, commuters, etc.
/section{Numbers}
\section{Numbers}
For fun let's compare:
@ -239,7 +239,7 @@ For fun let's compare:
/section{A crime against spirits}
\section{A crime against spirits}
Like these modern bombs that kill everything that lives by preserving buildings and equipment, advertising kills all intellectual and civic activity by letting the individual live the only reflexes of consumption, like overconditioned Pavlov dogs.
Doubt, thought, ideas, selflessness, spiritual and personal development, public interest, collective sense and solidarity, everything is swept away as an obstacle to the single thought: buying.
@ -275,5 +275,5 @@ Yves Frémion
Yves Frémion is a writer and journalist, author of more than 80 titles in all fields. He leads the workshops of Tayrac, associative edition.
Vice-President of the Voltaire Network and of the Permanent Council of Writers. He directs the series “La Planète verte”[The Green Planet] at Hachette Jeunesse.
An ecologist, he was an MEP and in charge of the Greens' International Relations. He is currently a regional councillor for Île-de-France.
Latest books published: /emph{Deluge sur Monteyrac}[Deluge sur Monteyrac] (Hachette), /emph{Attention chien léchant}[Beware licking dog] (Audie), /emph{Le Tueur} [The Killer] (Gallimard).
Latest books published: \emph{Deluge sur Monteyrac}[Deluge sur Monteyrac] (Hachette), \emph{Attention chien léchant}[Beware licking dog] (Audie), \emph{Le Tueur} [The Killer] (Gallimard).
8
32 Even if the abolition of capitalism would not be enough Monique and Roland Weyl.txt
@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ It can only be said that war is inherent in capitalism, which does not mean that
In these times of despair, in order to obtain from individuals and peoples that they resign themselves to the sustainability of capitalism, the construction of a world freed from the relations of exploitation over men and domination over peoples is presented to them as an unachievable utopia , and for this nothing is easier than to draw a line under socialism from the rout of an experiment, and from his slippages and mistakes, some of which have been tragic.
Admittedly, the often-repeated formula “Socialism is Peace” proceeded first of all from an overly simple /emph{a contrario} reasoning :
Admittedly, the often-repeated formula “Socialism is Peace” proceeded first of all from an overly simple \emph{a contrario} reasoning :
since capitalism generates war, the abolition of capitalism eliminates war by eliminating its cause.
More substantially, it was consistent to consider that, since the ambition of socialism was to put an end to the relations of exploitation and domination, war, the extreme means of domination over other peoples and over one's own people, was a phenomenon alien to socialism.
@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ We were already not far from it between the USSR and China, and it was necessary
It was discovered, with heartbreak, that there could be wars between socialist countries. It was therefore necessary to revise everything, here too learn not to idealize:
socialism too could carry war with it. Was this a denial of the fundamental antithesis?
We simply learned that socialism does not /emph{ipso facto} eliminate war, just as we had (painfully) learned that it did not ipso facto eradicate delinquency, corruption, careerism.
We simply learned that socialism does not \emph{ipso facto} eliminate war, just as we had (painfully) learned that it did not ipso facto eradicate delinquency, corruption, careerism.
Then? Did Jaurès fool us?
@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ Socialism does not put an end overnight to the dissatisfaction of all the needs
Why not then return to the simple idea that war is the ultimate means of domination?
It is in this that we can say that /emph{“homo homini lupus”} but in this only, and therefore that war is not eliminated /emph{ipso facto} by the abolition of capitalism, but will be when this abolition has allowed man to strip the wolf to flourish as a man.
It is in this that we can say that \emph{“homo homini lupus”} but in this only, and therefore that war is not eliminated \emph{ipso facto} by the abolition of capitalism, but will be when this abolition has allowed man to strip the wolf to flourish as a man.
The most elementary humanism therefore commands to reject the abominable aphorism of the fatality of war.
If lucidity dictates that it is not enough to abolish capitalism to eliminate it, as long as the legacy and the after-effects are not expurgated, the truth also requires us to admit that to capitalism, and capitalism alone, because of its nature based on exploitation, war is intrinsic.
@ -99,4 +99,4 @@ Yes, intrinsic to capitalism, because its irremissible original flaw is that wit
Monique and Roland Weyl
Monique and Roland Weyl are lawyers, authors of /emph{Démocratie, pouvoir du peuple ; Se libérer de Maastricht}[Democracy, Power of the People; Free yourself from Maastricht] (Temps des cerises).
Monique and Roland Weyl are lawyers, authors of \emph{Démocratie, pouvoir du peuple ; Se libérer de Maastricht}[Democracy, Power of the People; Free yourself from Maastricht] (Temps des cerises).
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