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Chapter 25

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@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ the English Parliament forbade the manufactures of the indians in 1719.
After the French East India Company was reconstituted (1723) and the Paris Stock Exchange founded (1724), the French became increasingly interested in the Indies.
The conflict between France and England on this territory is not only an extension of their wars in Europe; it is the rivalry between two merchant capitalisms at a time when industrial capitalism is growing.
The Treaty of Paris of 1763 gave way to England to colonize the Indies, as shown that same year by the deposition of the Bengal soubab and the following year the defeat of the Great Mogol at Buxad.
The ideas of liberalism accompanying the rise of capitalism are opposed in the name of “laissez-faire, laissez-passer” to the old mercantilist charters.
The ideas of liberalism accompanying the rise of capitalism are opposed in the name of \enquote{laissez-faire, laissez-passer} to the old mercantilist charters.
The conflict between the old and the new led to the abolition of the privilege of the French East India Company in 1769 and its re-creation by Calonne in 1785, the Regulating Act concerning the English East India Company in 1773 and the India Act of 1784.
Faced with the first Western invasion, the peoples of Asia fought as was the case in the Indian peninsula:
@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ Everywhere the products of metropolitan industries find their outlets.
In this colonized Asia, China remains theoretically independent. Relative independence.
From the Treaty of Nanking (1842) Chinese customs could only impose duties of 5\% on goods from European industries, after the Third Opium War they were put in 1861 in the hands of officials of the capitalist powers.
They take advantage of their position of strength to carve out concessions by the fait accompli like England in Shanghai.
Japan, still closed to foreigners, was “opened” by Commodore Perry's American squadron in 1853, which forced the Shogun government to let Westerners access its ports by the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854).
Japan, still closed to foreigners, was \enquote{opened} by Commodore Perry's American squadron in 1853, which forced the Shogun government to let Westerners access its ports by the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854).
Here too, customs duties have been limited for the benefit of their exports and forced recognition of the extraterritoriality of certain portions of Japanese territory for their benefit.
But, unlike China where the Tai Ping revolt did not succeed in the 50s, the shogun accused of too much complacency towards the barbarians of the West was overthrown in 1867, which will allow the rapid accession to capitalism in this part of Asia.
@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ To move from one economic and social regime to another the paths are diverse; th
Contact with the Westerners had caused Japan to rise in prices, lose its gold reserves and peasant revolts.
A new expedition of these in 1863 had proved once again their material superiority.
The accession to the throne of the new Emperor Mutsohito in 1867 led to the abolition of the functions of shogun and the beginning of 1st Meiji, that of the “enlightened government”.
The accession to the throne of the new Emperor Mutsohito in 1867 led to the abolition of the functions of shogun and the beginning of 1st Meiji, that of the \enquote{enlightened government}.
Feudalism was abolished in its various aspects, but the new Japanese ruling class was composed not only of the merchant bourgeoisie but of many feudal lords who easily switched to capitalism, like many English lords in the previous century.
But in Japan it is the state that allows the start of a modern economy for the establishment of which primitive accumulation would otherwise have been insufficient.
Companies founded by the Japanese state were handed over by him to the private sector in 1881 at very low prices.
@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ Capitalist Japan is moving fast, very fast forward.
In China a capitalist sector appeared and a certain industrialization began in this second half of the nineteenth century.
Imports from the outside capitalist world harm certain Chinese industries (textiles in particular).
Ports open to foreigners, however, constitute centres of diffusion of capitalism; to mark the possible synthesis of the old and the new, we even speak of “Confucian capitalism”.
Ports open to foreigners, however, constitute centres of diffusion of capitalism; to mark the possible synthesis of the old and the new, we even speak of \enquote{Confucian capitalism}.
But the hinterland and the countryside remain traditional.
A floating sub-proletariat exists, part of which emigrated to form coolies all over the Pacific, while more affluent elements are added to this Chinese diaspora that will play its full role in twentieth-century capitalism, especially in Southeast Asia.
In China itself capitalism lives in close osmosis with the bureaucracy, which does not give at all the same results as in Japan.
@ -130,10 +130,10 @@ In the colonial countries the bourgeoisie is above all a comprador bourgeoisie a
\section{Rivalries between capitalisms in Asia}
“There is room in Asia for all of us,” proclaimed Lord Salisbury in 1880.
Even if “all of us” meant Western capitalist states, it was already an optimistic view, as the rivalries in Southeast Asia at the same time showed.
\enquote{There is room in Asia for all of us}, proclaimed Lord Salisbury in 1880.
Even if \enquote{all of us} meant Western capitalist states, it was already an optimistic view, as the rivalries in Southeast Asia at the same time showed.
In addition, there was Japanese expansionism, which would have to be reckoned with.
The notions of “Empire” and “Imperialism” were praiseworthily spread by authors ranging from Disraeli to Kipling before it was made clear by Hobson, Hilferding and Lenin that imperialism was the union of industrial capital and bank capital to form a finance capital aimed at world domination.
The notions of \enquote{Empire} and \enquote{Imperialism} were praiseworthily spread by authors ranging from Disraeli to Kipling before it was made clear by Hobson, Hilferding and Lenin that imperialism was the union of industrial capital and bank capital to form a finance capital aimed at world domination.
At the beginning of the Meiji era, the Japanese ruling class, not feeling ready, had given up attacking Korea in 1873.
It had nevertheless secured its control over the Islands of Bonin, Kurils and Ryukyu.
@ -142,28 +142,28 @@ On the contrary, the desire for expansion led Japan of large integrated companie
By the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) it obtained not only Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands, but a large indemnity, which served to make Japanese capitalism develop even faster, and the right to build businesses in northeastern China (Manchuria).
But Russia forced it to leave Port Arthur.
The imperialist powers then embarked on the “battle of concessions” (1896-1902), each of them, Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, striving to win the best share and jealously watching that of the neighbor.
The imperialist powers then embarked on the \enquote{battle of concessions} (1896-1902), each of them, Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, striving to win the best share and jealously watching that of the neighbor.
They agreed following the Boxer Rebellion in order to intervene in 1900 with all the brutality their troops were capable of.
For the first time Japan then attacked a European state, Russia (1904-1905), defeated it and the Treaty of Portsmouth earned it Liaodong in China, southern Sakhalin and a free hand in Manchuria and Korea.
The United States, which has not managed to carve out a zone of influence on Chinese soil, has instead ousted the Spaniards from the Philippines granted to them by the Treaty of Paris (1898).
The formation of a Chinese bourgeoisie, proletariat and intelligentsia linked to the progress of capitalism cannot remain without political consequences.
Founded by Sun Yat-sen the “Union for the Renaissance of China” (1894) and the Tong Meng-hui League (1905) maintained insurrectional activities that led to the October Revolution of 1911.
Described by British authors as an “invisible bourgeois revolution”, it established the republic, soon led by the reactionary general Yuan Shi-Kai to whom the Westerners hastened to grant a “loan of reorganization”.
At the same time, the largest financial groups established in Asia (Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, Yokohama Specie Bank, Banque de l'Indochine, Deutsche Asiatische Bank, Russian-Asian Bank and several American banks) agreed to form the “First Consortium” in 1912, in order to share the profits.
Founded by Sun Yat-sen the \enquote{Union for the Renaissance of China} (1894) and the Tong Meng-hui League (1905) maintained insurrectional activities that led to the October Revolution of 1911.
Described by British authors as an \enquote{invisible bourgeois revolution}, it established the republic, soon led by the reactionary general Yuan Shi-Kai to whom the Westerners hastened to grant a \enquote{loan of reorganization}.
At the same time, the largest financial groups established in Asia (Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, Yokohama Specie Bank, Banque de l'Indochine, Deutsche Asiatische Bank, Russian-Asian Bank and several American banks) agreed to form the \enquote{First Consortium} in 1912, in order to share the profits.
This attempt at super-imperialism was all the less lasting as the First World War soon broke out.
In Asia, it mainly benefited Japanese imperialism.
Japan, which had imposed its protectorate on Korea in 1905 and brutally annexed it in 1910, entered the war on the side of the Allies as early as 1914, while China waited until 1917 to do so.
Japan took the opportunity to demand that it accept its “twenty-one demands”, settle in Shandong and penetrate the Chinese market more than ever.
Japan took the opportunity to demand that it accept its \enquote{twenty-one demands}, settle in Shandong and penetrate the Chinese market more than ever.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917 the Allies agreed with Japan to intervene in the Far East against Soviet forces.
At the Treaty of Versailles (1919) Japan obtained to replace Germany in Shandong, but the Westerners forced it at the Washington Conference (1921-1922) to return it to China, at the same time as to renounce its project to annex part of Eastern Siberia and Mongolia.
The fury of the Japanese imperialists then prevented the realization of a “Second Consortium”. Decidedly super-imperialism was very difficult to practice!
The fury of the Japanese imperialists then prevented the realization of a \enquote{Second Consortium}. Decidedly super-imperialism was very difficult to practice!
The colonial empires of the nineteenth century continued their careers in the first forty years of the twentieth century.
In India, British colonial capitalism continued to dominate, but Indian capitalism was gaining momentum, led in particular by the Parsis of Bombay and the Marwaris, money lenders from Rajputana.
On the whole, Indian businessmen remain confined to light industry, but there are exceptions: the Tata Group continues its career in heavy industry.
From 1927 onwards, Indian capitalists regrouped in the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, complained about the “drain of wealth” exerted to their detriment by Great Britain and significantly inspired the Congress Party founded in 1920.
From 1927 onwards, Indian capitalists regrouped in the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, complained about the \enquote{drain of wealth} exerted to their detriment by Great Britain and significantly inspired the Congress Party founded in 1920.
The granting of certain regional powers to the Indians by the Montaigu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919 and the Round Table Conferences of 1930-1931 satisfied them.
Linked to world capitalism, India felt the consequences of the 1929 crisis, which affected workers, peasants and civil servants.
The movement of civil disobedience led by Gandhi in 1932-1933 led London to concede by the 1935 Statute an internal autonomy which, although very limited, was no less real.
@ -178,14 +178,14 @@ In Indochina, the Nghe-An uprising in 1931 was militarily suppressed, resulting
Colonial power remained unchanged until the war, there as in the Dutch East Indies.
On the contrary, the Americans considered it wiser for their capital to grant internal autonomy to the Philippines and the British did the same for Burma, detached from India in 1935.
The period from 1917 to 1923 has been described by British authors as the “golden age of Chinese capitalism”.
The period from 1917 to 1923 has been described by British authors as the \enquote{golden age of Chinese capitalism}.
The latter had indeed benefited from the commands of the world at war. Many banks were established as a result of the official Bank of China in 1918. The boom lasted until 1923.
But the “warlords” held a significant part of the provinces, often supported by the Western powers benefiting from “unequal treaties” (customs, extraterritoriality, concessions, tax privileges).
From 1924 to 1927, Guomindang (Kuomintang) troops led by Jiang Jie-si (Chiang Kai-shek) drove out the “warlords”.
But the \enquote{warlords} held a significant part of the provinces, often supported by the Western powers benefiting from \enquote{unequal treaties} (customs, extraterritoriality, concessions, tax privileges).
From 1924 to 1927, Guomindang (Kuomintang) troops led by Jiang Jie-si (Chiang Kai-shek) drove out the \enquote{warlords}.
He himself had the financiers Kong and Song as his brothers-in-law and had nothing to deny to the bourgeoisie.
Under his pressure he broke in 1927 with the Communists, who would form the “Republic of Chinese Soviets” in 1931, before leading the Long March to Shenxi in 1934.
Under his pressure he broke in 1927 with the Communists, who would form the \enquote{Republic of Chinese Soviets} in 1931, before leading the Long March to Shenxi in 1934.
The Guomindang in turn receives the support of the Western imperialists, who cede customs and legal advantages to put it in a position of strength vis-à-vis the Chinese people.
The “Four-Year Plan” aims to strengthen China's industry, in which banks invest huge amounts of capital. The annual growth rate was 8 to 9\%.
The \enquote{Four-Year Plan} aims to strengthen China's industry, in which banks invest huge amounts of capital. The annual growth rate was 8 to 9\%.
But the global crisis reached China in 1932, so that a quarter of China's industries had stopped working by 1935.
The recovery was taking shape, the Communists had offered Jiang negotiations, and an agreement was in sight when Japan launched a general war against China in July 1937.
@ -200,13 +200,13 @@ But, in the meantime, a military expedition was sent in 1928 to Shandong against
Suffering the consequences of the crisis of 1929, Japanese imperialism became frankly military and aggressive. From 1932,
the army is actually in power and big capital lets it expand by other methods that require a strong increase in the military budget.
The “Manchu Incident” of 1931, followed by a landing in Shanghai, led in September 1932 to the creation of the puppet state of Manchukuo.
The \enquote{Manchu Incident} of 1931, followed by a landing in Shanghai, led in September 1932 to the creation of the puppet state of Manchukuo.
After the assassination of many politicians by young officers in February l936, the military no longer had any obstacles to their aggressive designs, even if some of the zaibatsu were worried.
“Greater Asia” under Japanese rule was their ideal.
\enquote{Greater Asia} under Japanese rule was their ideal.
An engagement between Chinese and Japanese troops in July 1937 near Beijing (Beijing) was used by the militarists to launch Japan into an assault on China.
\section{Japanese imperialism, liberation movements and the end of colonization in Asia}
\section[Japanese imperialism; end of colonization in Asia]{Japanese imperialism, liberation movements and the end of colonization in Asia}
World War II began on Asian soil in 1937.
Japanese troops advanced in 1937-1938 in northern China, in the Yangtze River basin and around Guangzhou.
@ -218,14 +218,14 @@ However, the nationalist and especially communist guerrillas organized themselve
The generalization of the war waged by Japanese militarism in Asia began with the attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, confronting it in the Pacific and Asia with the United States and Great Britain.
Within a few months Japanese troops occupied Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and Burma.
Thailand following an agreement also of December 1941 let these troops pass. They reach the gates of India and Australia.
Japanese imperialism establishes its “Sphere of Asian Co-Prosperity”, a modest cover of its undivided domination.
Japanese imperialism establishes its \enquote{Sphere of Asian Co-Prosperity}, a modest cover of its undivided domination.
Japan exploits coal from China, oil from Indonesia and Burma, tin and bauxite from Malaysia and Indonesia, cotton from the Philippines, rice from Thailand and Cochinchina for the benefit of its war economy.
Like that of his colony in Korea, it brutally recruited labor from Malaysia and Indonesia.
Japanese capitalism derives increased profits from the war; in 1942 the four major zaibatsu controlled 50\% of Japan's financial capital, 32\% of heavy industry and 61\% of japan's sea transport;
they finance the “Development Companies” of occupied North and Central China, ensuring the maximum exploitation of Chinese wealth.
they finance the \enquote{Development Companies} of occupied North and Central China, ensuring the maximum exploitation of Chinese wealth.
But other Asian capitalisms also benefit from the war.
On the side of the Chongqing government, the “big four families” (Chen, Jiang, Kong, Song) also enriched themselves both by controlling production and by speculating on the dollar.
On the side of the Chongqing government, the \enquote{big four families} (Chen, Jiang, Kong, Song) also enriched themselves both by controlling production and by speculating on the dollar.
Runaway inflation is ravaging Nationalist China. It is strong in Japan and very strong in India.
Wages do not follow. Peasants, workers and the middle classes are suffering from living conditions worse than ever.
In addition to the direct victims of the fighting, the Henan famine killed four million people in 1942, the Bengal famine at least three million in 1942-1943 and the Tonkin famine two million in 1944.
@ -251,9 +251,9 @@ From then on, when independence was granted in August 1947, it was granted to In
London managed to make them two dominions within the Commonwealth, but there were at least 300,000 deaths by massacres and executions, 500,000 by famine and 7 million refugees who lost everything on the roads.
In China, the Guo-min-dang had emerged from the war rather weakened and the Communists rather strengthened.
The “big four families” of Chinese capitalism thought only of taking credit for the confiscated Japanese companies, while inflation continued and the people suffered from poverty and repression.
The \enquote{big four families} of Chinese capitalism thought only of taking credit for the confiscated Japanese companies, while inflation continued and the people suffered from poverty and repression.
After an attempt to form a coalition government, civil war resumed in late 1946. The Guo-min-dang troops, initially driven out of the countryside, lost the encircled cities:
Shenyang (Mukden), Beijing (Beijing), Nanjing, Shanghai and Wuhan. With the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, and despite the maintenance of a “national capitalism”, Chinese capitalism seemed to have its heyday behind it.
Shenyang (Mukden), Beijing (Beijing), Nanjing, Shanghai and Wuhan. With the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, and despite the maintenance of a \enquote{national capitalism}, Chinese capitalism seemed to have its heyday behind it.
\section{The capitalist economies of post-war Asia}
@ -287,18 +287,18 @@ The Second World War, like the First, was a profitable period for Indian capital
The British government became the major customer of the peninsula's steel and textile industries, and as a result, India moved from debtor to creditor.
A fifteen-year plan (1947-1962), called the Bombay Plan, was adopted, which provided for a doubling of per capita income during this period.
According to him, the state was to finance the basic industries and the private capitalists the sectors promising a quick profit.
This design full of charm for the latter had received the name of “mixed economy”. The Bombay Plan has long continued to inspire the Indian economy.
This design full of charm for the latter had received the name of \enquote{mixed economy}. The Bombay Plan has long continued to inspire the Indian economy.
Nehru passed three five-year plans: 1951-1956, 1956-1961 and 1961-1966. Private industry was given protective tariffs, or even imports were banned.
The Rs 163 million in public investment during the three plans favoured industry and services at the expense of agriculture.
Heavy industry developed rapidly, that of consumer goods much slower. India received more than \$9 billion in aid from 1951 to 1966.
The "Green Revolution" dominated the periods 1961-1965 and 1966-1970 and agricultural production grew faster than the population.
The \enquote{Green Revolution} dominated the periods 1961-1965 and 1966-1970 and agricultural production grew faster than the population.
But 1965-1967 were the years of the industrial recession. The weaknesses of Indian capitalism were emerging, as was the inefficiency of the public sector.
The industrial recovery of the years 1970-1977 was accompanied by concentration. On the other hand, Indira Gandhi privatized Indian banks for a time in 1971.
Industrial production grew slowly until 1984 and then faster (8\% per year) until 1990. In the 80s, investment accounted for nearly 25\% of gross domestic product.
The World Bank forced India to devalue the rupee by 50\% in 1966.
That same year the conflict with Pakistan ended in Tashkent but it resumed during the East Pakistan uprising in 1971, which gave birth to Bangladesh.
Indian capitalism succeeded in 1981 in banning strikes in “essential” sectors, which did not prevent a general strike from killing 700 people in early 1982.
Indian capitalism succeeded in 1981 in banning strikes in \enquote{essential} sectors, which did not prevent a general strike from killing 700 people in early 1982.
India is seeking foreign investment for its industries and is striving to conquer markets in Southeast Asia.
Under the governments of Indira Gandhi, assassinated in 1984, then her son Rajiv (1984-1989) and Narasimha Rao (1990-1996), India conducted a nuclear test and acquired a missile with a range of 2,500 km.
The continuing tension raises fears that India, now one of the world's largest capitalist powers, will sooner or later face neighbouring Pakistan.
@ -313,7 +313,7 @@ Despite the unrest, the growth rate has fluctuated in recent years between 4 and
This probably partly explains the country's political oscillations. It admitted in 1992 that it could manufacture nuclear weapons and many believe that it undertook this manufacture.
The Indian peninsula may from one moment to the next ignite as a result of national rivalries between the ruling classes confronted that are reminiscent of what capitalist Europe experienced in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but this time in the nuclear age.
The economies of southeast Asian countries emerged from world war II extremely weakened by the destruction (Burma, Philippines) and other consequences of the war.
The economies of southeast Asian countries emerged from World War II extremely weakened by the destruction (Burma, Philippines) and other consequences of the war.
Whatever the differences from one country to another, the liberation movements all had economic development on their agenda.
The newly independent states set up central banks, the creation of which in the 50s and 60s was recommended by the World Bank as well as... central planning, which is enough to show that this is a distant time.
Thus was born the five-year plan (Repelita 1) in Indonesia in 1969, the first Malaysian plan in 1970, the twenty-year plan for Burma in 1972 and three five-year plans in Thailand, which followed one another after that date.
@ -325,10 +325,10 @@ In order to keep these countries in their camp, the United States provided aid (
After the American defeat in Vietnam (1975), the capitalisms of Southeast Asia embarked on policies of growth in their industry, trade and financial activities.
Already in Indonesia after the coup d'état of 1965 which had caused 500,000 deaths and 700,000 arrests, Suharto from 1967 had given this country an impetus both nationalist and favorable to the great interests by developing a real colonialism (West New Guinea, Celebes, Moluccas, Timor).
In Thailand, military coups (1975, 1977, 1988) as in the Philippines under the presidencies of Marcos (1965-1986), Cory Aquino (1986-1992) and Fidel Ramos (from 1992), capitalism is strengthening.
The “newly industrialized countries” open their doors to foreign capitalism, obeying the rules of neoliberalism advocated by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.
Growth rates during the 90s were around 8\% per year. Everywhere we give as a model the “new tigers” who have thus found the ways of economic take-off.
The \enquote{newly industrialized countries} open their doors to foreign capitalism, obeying the rules of neoliberalism advocated by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.
Growth rates during the 90s were around 8\% per year. Everywhere we give as a model the \enquote{new tigers} who have thus found the ways of economic take-off.
To these “new tigers” we must join the “new dragons” no less capitalist than them.
To these \enquote{new tigers} we must join the \enquote{new dragons} no less capitalist than them.
Taiwan had an average annual growth rate of 6.7\% from 1977 to 1996, with peaks of up to 13\% Hong Kong has set its growth rate at 5\% for ten years and South Korea at 8.4\%.
The latter has become the eleventh industrial power in the world.
South Korean capitalism is distinguished by the activity of its conglomerates or chaebol (Samsung, Daewoo, Kia, Halla, Hyundai, LG, Sangyong), which can not be better compared than to Japanese zaibatsu.
@ -336,7 +336,7 @@ It is also marked by the many scandals of its ruling class, which has never hesi
Two former presidents of the Republic were sentenced in 1996, one Chun Doo-hwan to life, the other Roh Tae-woo to 17 years in prison for the 1979 military coup and the massacre of at least 2,000 people participating in the popular demonstrations in Kwangju in 1980, the most notorious repressive fact.
The leaders of the main chaebol have all been punished by the courts for corruption.
The economic successes of both “new dragons” and “new tigers” attracted foreign capital to countries whose currencies were aligned with the dollar but where profits were higher than those made in the Western world.
The economic successes of both \enquote{new dragons} and \enquote{new tigers} attracted foreign capital to countries whose currencies were aligned with the dollar but where profits were higher than those made in the Western world.
When difficulties arose in 1997 this capital, representing speculative investments, began to flee the capitalist countries of East Asia.
The crisis began in Thailand in July and then spread to the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. Currencies had to be devalued (by 15-55\%) and IMF and Japanese assistance was sought.
The disaster spread from stock exchange to stock exchange. Hong Kong reunited in July with China, but forming a special administrative region still fully capitalist, was reached in October and South Korea in December.
@ -364,7 +364,7 @@ The Asian Development Bank, providing interest-free or very low-interest loans,
North Korea from 1946, mainland China after 1949, North Vietnam after 1954 and the whole of Vietnam since 1975, Laos finally chose a path other than that of capitalism.
In China, however, private companies have been authorized since 1978. Joint enterprises were established with foreign capital from 1980 and special free and economic zones were established.
The slogan “socialist market economy” was launched in 1992. 3,200 joint-stock companies listed on the stock exchange (Shenzhen and Shanghai) have been established.
The slogan \enquote{socialist market economy} was launched in 1992. 3,200 joint-stock companies listed on the stock exchange (Shenzhen and Shanghai) have been established.
Foreign investment has increased. Vietnam has followed a similar path, although there has been no stock market so far in that country and its leaders are showing great caution.
The IMF and the World Bank insist that reforms in both states be carried out to the end, which means in the minds of these financial institutions a full return to capitalism.
Officials in both countries, however, have always presented these reforms as not calling into question the socialist character of their regimes.
@ -372,14 +372,14 @@ Officials in both countries, however, have always presented these reforms as not
Our time is one of economic integration on all continents.
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) has played only a limited role as a result of the Indo-Pakistan rivalry.
But the Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN,( Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand), created in 1967 in Bangkok, is an important economic and political organization with links with the European Union and other groupings of states. Vietnam joined in 1995.
On the other hand, the Japanese imperialists seize every opportunity, such as the East Asian financial crisis, to seek to establish a yen zone in Asia, in which we can see a softened version of the “sphere of co-prosperity” of unfortunate memory.
On the other hand, the Japanese imperialists seize every opportunity, such as the East Asian financial crisis, to seek to establish a yen zone in Asia, in which we can see a softened version of the \enquote{sphere of co-prosperity} of unfortunate memory.
The workhorse of their American rivals is rather the Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation launched in 1989 by Australia but which they took over in 1994 and which should lead in 2010 to a vast free trade area encompassing both sides of the Pacific.
After the return to capitalism of the countries of the former Soviet Union and those of Eastern Europe, the dominant thought in the West is that this return must take place in Asia as everywhere because capitalism is the only conceivable human regime.
That he is human is what reading this book can legitimately cast doubt on. That it is the only conceivable one is no more true.
He had predecessors who were not capitalists and competed in this twentieth century with another who was not either. The domination of big capital is heavy to bear.
Despite the stranglehold on information and the “single thought >\rfootnote{“>” is in the original. You probably wonder why there is “>” here. Well so do I. it might be a typo but since I'm not sure I let it as it is } people are realizing it every day and, among them, the Asian masses facing the consequences of the financial crisis.
Despite the stranglehold on information and the \enquote{single thought >\rfootnote{\enquote{>} is in the original. You probably wonder why there is \enquote{>} here. Well so do I. It might be a typo but since I'm not sure I let it as it is}} people are realizing it every day and, among them, the Asian masses facing the consequences of the financial crisis.
It is inevitable that they will aspire to something else to ensure a better life and find the way to it. For capitalism is not the future for Asia or for the rest of the world.
\rauthor{Yves Grenet}
\rauthor{Yves Grenet}

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