@ -854,7 +854,7 @@ Cuba imported between 1800 and 1850 more than 700,000 additional slaves, attache
The southern United States brought more than 150,000 slaves a year between 1810 and 1830 into the cotton belt.
Far from the tinkering of the beginnings, a real \enquote{servile capitalist economy} was born.
The resale of coffee and sugar production from America accounted for 50\% of the France's export earnings in 1750.
The resale of coffee and sugar production from America accounted for 50\% of France's export earnings in 1750.
With regard to the circulation of money and the transformation into capital of the capital gains produced by the rationalization of the transport of slaves,
there are many indications of the extraordinary nature of the profits generated by bonded labour:
@ -1817,9 +1817,9 @@ As a result, 4 miners were killed, 2,000 were imprisoned, hundreds were injured.
That year, there were 6,561,176 strikers and 13,133,313 strike days!
While the France is to be rebuilt, the governments of the Fourth Republic, which succeed each other at an accelerated pace,
While France is to be rebuilt, the governments of the Fourth Republic, which succeed each other at an accelerated pace,
do not hesitate to engage in a colonialist, ruinous and bloody war in Vietnam, and to exercise violent repression in Madagascar and Algeria.
In 1953, military spending represented 40\% of the France's budget! The impoverishment of the working class is well underway, corporate profits are at record highs.
In 1953, military spending represented 40\% of France's budget! The impoverishment of the working class is well underway, corporate profits are at record highs.
The unions are leading the struggle on all fronts, against the war in Vietnam, for the improvement of the purchasing power of employees.
Repression strikes at arm's length, it is the case to say it! Workers killed by the police or the thugs of the R.P.F. (Rally of the French People, Gaullist), arbitrary dismissals.
@ -2031,7 +2031,7 @@ As these men had lost a few years, they were counted a copious catch-up of salar
Although on a completely different scale, the Fourth Republic, born from the Resistance, did not escape the repressive temptation.
As early as 1945 these Republican Security Companies (RS) were formed, which would be illustrated in a very sinister way.
Curiously shaped, by a strange amalgam between these GMRs\rfootnote{stands for Groupe Mobile de Réserve/mobile reserve group} who had served Vichy and the Gestapo and FFI(Forces Française de l'intérieur/ Inside Frecnh forces) and FTP(Francs Tireurs et Partisans/Mavericks and partisans) fighters from the maquis or urban guerrillas, the CRS(Companies Républicaines de Sécurité/Republican security companies ) were the perfect illustration of this short memory that concerned as much deep France as the new authorities.
From the end of 1947, three years after the liberation of the France from the Nazi yoke and the Vichy regime, the CRS, new soldiers of the order, did not hesitate to shoot at striking workers.
From the end of 1947, three years after the liberation of France from the Nazi yoke and the Vichy regime, the CRS, new soldiers of the order, did not hesitate to shoot at striking workers.
There will be three dead in Valence and one in Marseille, as well as many wounded.
Faced with the first major wave of strikes since the Liberation, the government, still composed of politicians from the Resistance, had the National Assembly pass a law called \enquote{republican defense}.
This meant the provision to the Minister of the Interior, Jules Moch, of a force of 80,000 men, responsible for \enquote{enforcing the freedom of work}\footnote{\emph{Idem.}, p. 234.}.
@ -2100,14 +2100,14 @@ For six weeks, over the course of the demonstrations, thousands of Parisians –
Who can know how many of them have suffered such sequelae that they have never fully recovered.
Police bludgeoned in the streets, beat boys and girls who fell to the ground, bludgeoned and sometimes tortured in police stations. It was war\footnote{Report to \emph{La Police hors la loi}, by Maurice Rajsfus, Le Cherche midi éditeur, 1996.}!
From June 1968 to March 1974, under the senior direction of Raymond Marcellin, the France was under almost permanent siege.
From June 1968 to March 1974, under the senior direction of Raymond Marcellin, France was under almost permanent siege.
During this period, the real center of power was in the Ministry of the Interior.
Everything that constitutes the driving forces of the France of human rights is suspected of a spirit of protest, and necessarily repressed with the greatest rigor.
One can no longer write, express oneself publicly, publish, make films, stage plays, or even paint, sometimes, only under the vigilant control of Raymond Marcellin.
The police, and the justice at its service, watch for the slightest rustle in high schools, as at the University\footnote{Report to \emph{Mai 68, sous les pavés, la répression} (May 68, under the cobblestones, repression), by Maurice Rajsfus, Le Cherche midi éditeur, 1998.}.
A police society, the France is in great danger of abuse.
The police state is waiting for us, even when the majority changes sides. The France is one of the democratic countries with the largest law enforcement agencies. We have:
A police society, France is in great danger of abuse.
The police state is waiting for us, even when the majority changes sides. France is one of the democratic countries with the largest law enforcement agencies. We have:
{
\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{--}
@ -2199,11 +2199,11 @@ Despite the continued development of German force, Wilhelm II, like Bismarck, wa
The agreement of France and England, coupled with an alliance with Russia, agreements with Italy and Spain, seemed to him to be a threat to German expansion plans.
Pushed by his advisers, Bülow and Holstein, he undertook a major diplomatic offensive, targeting both France and Russia.
On the France, Germany exercised a brutal action, bellicose in appearance, by opposing like a veto to its Moroccan policy: the kaiser's speech in Tangier, then the resignation of Delcassé had the effect on French opinion of a new Fachoda, a national humiliation.
On France, Germany exercised a brutal action, bellicose in appearance, by opposing like a veto to its Moroccan policy: the kaiser's speech in Tangier, then the resignation of Delcassé had the effect on French opinion of a new Fachoda, a national humiliation.
Conversely, William II lavished friendly words on the tsar, who was angered by defeat and revolution; he thus led him to the Björkoe meeting, where a secret pact of German-Russian alliance was signed, a prelude to a great continental league of which Germany would be the head.
This policy did not produce the expected results. The Pact of Björkoe, incompatible with the French alliance, remained a dead letter.
The Algeciras Conference (1906), convened at the request of Germany to settle the Moroccan question, rejected most of the German proposals, entrusted the France and Spain with the police of the Moroccan ports.
The Algeciras Conference (1906), convened at the request of Germany to settle the Moroccan question, rejected most of the German proposals, entrusted France and Spain with the police of the Moroccan ports.
The Entente Cordiale, far from being broken, became narrower; much more, it expanded into the Triple Entente, after England and Russia had, by the agreement of 1907, settled all their Asian disputes.
In Germany the haunting of encirclement grew, the European atmosphere became stormy. A second peace conference in The Hague (1907) failed to stop the arms race, on sea and land.
@ -2229,14 +2229,14 @@ Russia, dissatisfied with its failure, supported the Serbs, until the day when t
Nothing seemed to be able to resist the German force.
\subsection{To settle in Morocco, the France had to cede part of the Congo (1911).}
\subsection{To settle in Morocco, France had to cede part of the Congo (1911).}
In Morocco, after new incidents (about Germans deserting the Foreign Legion), Germany had concluded with the France an economic agreement (1909). But this agreement worked badly.
In Morocco, after new incidents (about Germans deserting the Foreign Legion), Germany had concluded with France an economic agreement (1909). But this agreement worked badly.
When, to unblock the sultan and the Europeans besieged by rebels, French troops entered Fez (1911), Germany declared the status of Algeciras violated and, to obtain compensation, sent a warship to Agadir (southern coast of Morocco).
This time it encountered strong resistance. England vetoed any establishment of Germany in Morocco.
But the French government (Caillaux) was in favour of a peaceful solution; the Franco-German negotiations, although interspersed with drums of war, resulted in an agreement:
in exchange for freedom of action in Morocco, the France ceded part of the French Congo to Germany (1911).
in exchange for freedom of action in Morocco, France ceded part of the French Congo to Germany (1911).
Instead of producing appeasement, this agreement only exacerbated Franco-German passions and antagonism.
Germany, in order to intimidate its opponents, increased its armaments. In France, after so many alerts, we no longer wanted to be intimidated:
@ -2277,7 +2277,7 @@ Suddenly, on 23 July, Austria presented an ultimatum to Serbia, whose demands we
But already the location of the conflict, demanded by Germany, proved impossible. Russia, determined not to let Serbia be crushed, began its military preparations.
In vain the English government, very peaceful, multiplied the offers of mediation. Germany rejected them at first, and then only answered them when English neutrality began to appear doubtful (29-30 July). Too late.
Austrian intransigence played into the hands of the military staffs eager to act. Russia decided on July 29 the partial mobilization, on July 30 the general mobilization.
Germany retaliated on July 31 with a double ultimatum, to Russia and France, followed on August 1 by a declaration of war on Russia, then on August 3 by a declaration of war on the France.
Germany retaliated on July 31 with a double ultimatum, to Russia and France, followed on August 1 by a declaration of war on Russia, then on August 3 by a declaration of war on France.
As soon as the conflict began, the Triple Alliance broke up while the Triple Entente asserted itself. Italy invoked the purely defensive character of the Triplice to remain neutral.
The English government, very divided and hesitant, initially undertook only to defend the French coast of the English Channel (2 August).
@ -2415,11 +2415,11 @@ the war would prove to be an excellent deal for big international industry, whic
The European war has taken on the proportions of an immense cataclysm.
It has spread to the whole world; but it was in France that it reached its maximum intensity and caused the most devastation; and it was in France that the German force finally had to capitulate.
The coalition of the Central Empires (strengthened in October 1914 from Turkey) seemed far inferior to a coalition that encompassed the France, the Russian and British empires, Belgium, Serbia (and even Japan).
But England had only a small army; the Russian army, very numerous, was poorly organized; everything depended on the resistance that the France would offer to the powerful German army.
The coalition of the Central Empires (strengthened in October 1914 from Turkey) seemed far inferior to a coalition that encompassed France, the Russian and British empires, Belgium, Serbia (and even Japan).
But England had only a small army; the Russian army, very numerous, was poorly organized; everything depended on the resistance that France would offer to the powerful German army.
\subsection{Germany is trying to overwhelm the France and seems on the verge of success.}
\subsection{Germany is trying to overwhelm France and seems on the verge of success.}
Germany's plan was to throw itself into France with almost all its strength, quickly put it out of action, and then turn against Russia.
Undoubtedly, it did not have as in 1870 a great numerical superiority, but it counted on the superiority of its technical preparation, its reserve formations, its heavy field artillery, its siege artillery (guns of 420), finally on the surprise effect that its maneuver in Belgium would produce.
@ -2666,7 +2666,7 @@ But if the masses were enthusiastic for such a program, leaders and diplomats we
After difficult negotiations, the Treaty of Versailles, imposed on Germany, was signed on June 28, 1919.
The Treaty established a Society of nations, first open to the Allies and neutrals and responsible for resettle disputes through arbitration.
Germany was to return Alsace-Lorraine to France, Posnania to Poland (with a corridor giving to access to the Baltic) and accept that the fate of Schleswig, the Polish Prussia, upper Silesia was settled by plebiscite.
Besides it renounced all its colonies; it undertook to repair all damage to the France and its allies.
Besides it renounced all its colonies; it undertook to repair all damage to France and its allies.
France, whose territory had been ravaged, received, in compensation for its mines destroyed in the North, the property of the saar mines (the territory itself was placed for fifteen years under international control).
As garantees against Germany, it obtained:
1. the reduction of the army German to 100,000 men;
@ -2791,7 +2791,7 @@ Between January and March, Soviet troops win everywhere. Kolchak was beaten in S
Denikin was forced to evacuate Odessa, where the French intervention ceased. The ports of Murmansk and Arkangelsk are liberated.
The Soviet power, which has just set up the Goelro plan for the electrification of Russia, believes it can finally breathe.
But on April 25, the Poles helped by the White armies of General Wrangel, supported in particular by the France, rushed into the Red Army. General Boudionny's 1st Cavalry Army went on the counter-offensive on 5 June and prevailed in November.
But on April 25, the Poles helped by the White armies of General Wrangel, supported in particular by France, rushed into the Red Army. General Boudionny's 1st Cavalry Army went on the counter-offensive on 5 June and prevailed in November.
Wrangel, cornered in Crimea, is definitively defeated. Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan come to power from the revolutionaries. The struggle continued only in the Far East against the bands of Semionov and Baron Von Ungern, supported by the Japanese.
However, it was not until October 1922 that there were no more foreign interventionists in the territory of what became, on 30 December, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
@ -2873,7 +2873,7 @@ Many thought they were manipulating him (while they themselves were manipulated
If in the eyes of world opinion, and until today, one country is cheaply getting away with its role during the thirties, it is England. Yet its role was most detrimental to peace and democracy.
The one who was since 1933 one of the main inspirations, and became from 1937 the first responsible for its policy of appeasement against Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, passes for a brave man overwhelmed by the cruelty of the political universe,
while he knew what he wanted and that it was not angelic.
Above all, he wanted to prevent the France from taking initiatives inspired by his anti-German atavism, and he did so admirably.
Above all, he wanted to prevent France from taking initiatives inspired by his anti-German atavism, and he did so admirably.
He had only decent relations with Hitler, but on the other hand, he cultivated, through the Foreign Office, a certain intimacy with the German conservatives.
What he was aiming for, therefore, was not the division drawn in Mein Kampf — to England the seas, to Germany Eastern Europe, Ukraine included — but some fair deal with German capital, satisfying the most reasonable of its aspirations to the east.
Hence his sense of triumph at the time of Munich — by sacrificing the Sudetenland, he believes he has channeled Germany's Eastern ambitions, with the help of his generals who had made no secret of their fear of war against England.
@ -2916,7 +2916,7 @@ Who would argue in good faith that Stalin had nothing to fear from the anti-Sovi
In this start of a conflict that will kill fifty million people, and in the initial advantage that Germany will enjoy, in particular thanks to this German-Soviet pact, Chamberlain's responsibility is total, that of Daladier not much less. However, Stalin's is not zero.
The problem can be posed in Trotsky's way: by making Russia a frequentable power, by curbing struggles everywhere and especially in the France of the Popular Front, Stalin would have weakened the revolutionary edge that alone could make fascism retreat.
The problem can be posed in Trotsky's way: by making Russia a frequentable power, by curbing struggles everywhere and especially in France of the Popular Front, Stalin would have weakened the revolutionary edge that alone could make fascism retreat.
Perhaps! In any case, this could be achieved through a classic understanding between States, encircling and discouraging the potential aggressor. That is what Churchill was aiming for, and he cannot be denied any relevance in this regard.
It is obvious that the French Communists tirelessly made a velvet paw, until the end of August 1939, and reacted as softly as possible, defying their own voters when Daladier attacked the social gains of the Popular Front, so as not to hinder the national mobilization,
nor the diplomatic efforts of the Soviet big brother.
@ -4749,7 +4749,7 @@ Malnutrition: 1,100 calories per person instead of 2,500. Children's weight decr
\begin{flushright}(Unicef Health Observatory)\end{flushright}
\chapter{Black Africa under french colonization}
\chapter{Black Africa under French colonization}
\chapterauthor{Jean SURET-CANALE}
@ -4772,7 +4772,7 @@ Exploitation remains essentially commercial, monopolized by a limited number of
The division of the African continent, from coastal trading posts inherited from the time of the slave trade, will take place roughly from 1876 to 1900.
It will oppose France especially to Great Britain, in a rivalry that will culminate in 1898 with the Fachoda \enquote{incident}, when the Marchand Mission, trying to establish a link between Central Africa and Djibouti, will clash with the English troops of Kitchener, on the Upper Nile.
The France will have to abandon its claims in this area. But, most of the partition completed, the \enquote{Entente cordiale} concluded in 1904 will put an end to the Franco-British conflict.
France will have to abandon its claims in this area. But, most of the partition completed, the \enquote{Entente cordiale} concluded in 1904 will put an end to the Franco-British conflict.
The colonial conquest was covered with humanitarian pretexts:
it was a question of putting an end to the slave trade and slavery, of eliminating the \enquote{bloody kinglets} who set Africa on fire and blood, of opening Africa to trade, and thus to civilization.
@ -4788,15 +4788,15 @@ The military and traders are sometimes divided, when, for example, the political
But, on the whole, the territorial stranglehold serves the interests of European trade, which eliminates competition from African traders and establishes, from coast to inland, its network of factories where local products are exchanged for imported goods.
The resistance of the African heads of state, Lat Dior in Senegal, Ahmadou in Sudan (now Mali), Samory in Upper Guinea, Béhanzin in Dahomey (present-day Benin), etc., will be broken because of the superiority of the conquerors in armament (rapid-fire rifles, artillery);
the resistance of the \enquote{stateless} populations, living in autonomous tribal or village communities, will take longer to overcome, and will continue very much before in the twentieth century (\enquote{pacification} of the forest Ivory Coast from 1908 to 1916; insurgency of the Gbayas in Equatorial Africa, from 1928 to 1931).
the resistance of the \enquote{stateless} populations, living in autonomous tribal or village communities, will take longer to overcome, and will continue very much before in the twentieth century (\enquote{pacification} of the Ivory Coast forest from 1908 to 1916; insurgency of the Gbayas in Equatorial Africa, from 1928 to 1931).
The Saharan borders of Mauritania and Morocco were not submitted until 1936.
The \enquote{treaties} concluded with the African sovereigns, which founded the \enquote{rights} of the France against its colonial competitors, will be outrageously reduced to paper rags as soon as the colonial authorities find it in their interest:
Thus, in French West Africa, a simple decree of October 23, 1904 simply annexed the territories \enquote{under protectorate}.
The \enquote{treaties} concluded with the African sovereigns, which founded the \enquote{rights} of France against its colonial competitors, will be outrageously reduced to paper rags as soon as the colonial authorities find it in their interest:
thus, in French West Africa, a simple decree of October 23, 1904 simply annexed the territories \enquote{under protectorate}.
\section{Methods of warfare}
The methods of warfare are expeditious and ruthless. As European troops could only be reduced, local recruitment would be required, and it was mainly African soldiers who would conquer Africa on behalf of the France.
The methods of warfare are expeditious and ruthless. As European troops could only be reduced, local recruitment would be required, and it was mainly African soldiers who would conquer Africa on behalf of France.
Faidherbe, governor of Senegal under the Second Empire, had created the first units of \enquote{Senegalese riflemen}, who will retain this name, although later recruited mainly outside of Senegal.
@ -4811,7 +4811,7 @@ A French officer, participating in the capture of Sikasso (Mali) in 1898, descri
\begin{quote}
\enquote{After the siege, the assault... The order for looting is given. Everything is taken or killed. All the captives, about 4,000, gathered in herds.}\rfootnote{This quote and the next are not terminated in the original text}
\enquote{The colonel starts the distribution. He wrote himself on a notebook, then gave it up saying, \enquote{Share this amongst you.} The sharing took place with arguments and blows.
\enquote{The colonel starts the distribution. He wrote himself on a notebook, then gave it up saying, \enquote{Share this amongst you}. The sharing took place with arguments and blows.
Then, on the way! Each European received a woman of his choice...
We did the 40-kilometer stages with these captives. Children and all those who are tired are killed with butts and bayonets...}
@ -4842,7 +4842,7 @@ The bodies were later found by the commander of say's post}(158).
\end{quote}
In another village, carriers having been drafted, all the able-bodied men took refuge in the bush. \enquote{The old men, the women, the children alone remained.
They were taken out and, after having them placed on a row, salvo fires shot them down to the last.} (159) There were 111 bodies as a result of this \enquote{incident} alone.
They were taken out and, after having them placed on a row, salvo fires shot them down to the last.} (159) There were 111 bodies as a result of this \enquote{incident} alone.
Concerned, less about the procedures used and revealed by the press, than about the delay in the mission's planned schedule, the Sudanese authorities sent Lieutenant-Colonel Klobb and Lieutenant Meynier in search of the mission to regain control.
Fifty years later, Meynier, now a general, describes the traces of the mission as follows:
@ -4922,7 +4922,7 @@ There are other forms of forced labour.
Export crops are encouraged by various means, the simplest of which is the obligation to pay tax.
In regions where the use of money is not widespread, the only way to obtain tax money is to produce and sell products demanded by trading companies, crop products such as peanuts, cotton, coffee, or picking products such as \enquote{herb rubber} (provided by a savannah vine) much sought after at the beginning of the century, palm oil, kapock.
Farmers are required to supply the markets, placed under the control of the administration and where European traders or their agents buy at the prices of the \enquote{administrative mercurial}, prices set very often well below the real market value.
In addition, farmers are often defrauded (counterfeit scales, unpaid goods under the pretext of \enquote{poor quality}, but nevertheless marketed afterwards...)
In addition, farmers are often defrauded (counterfeit scales, unpaid goods under the pretext of \enquote{poor quality}, but nevertheless marketed afterwards...)
The exaction is even more evident in the regions (especially those of Equatorial Africa) where the regime is that of \enquote{mandatory crops}.
@ -4947,7 +4947,7 @@ On what happened, we have the testimony of a missionary, Fr. Daigre, who is also
Coercion is used. \enquote{Each village or group of villages was then occupied by one or more guards, assisted by a number of auxiliaries, and the exploitation of rubber began...
At the end of the month the harvest was brought to the capital where the sale took place at the rate of fifteen pennies the kilogramm.
The administration carried out the weighing and the buyer taking delivery of the goods paid cash, not to the harvesters, but to the official who paid the sum to the village tax.
The mass thus worked nine consecutive months without receiving any remuneration.}
The mass thus worked nine consecutive months without receiving any remuneration.}
\end{quote}
The missionary explains that, in the first two years, the populations were able to subsist on their old cassava plantations.
@ -4966,7 +4966,7 @@ Skeletal children searched piles of rubbish for ants and other insects they ate
\section{The exercise of \enquote{French authority}}
As we have said, the authority is entirely held by a hierarchy of European officials:
Governor General (head of the \enquote{groups of territories} of the A.O.E, the A.E.E. and large colonies such as Madagascar;
Governor General (head of the \enquote{groups of territories} of the A.O.E, the A.E.E. and large colonies such as Madagascar;
Cameroon, a territory under the mandate of the League of Nations, is under the authority of a Governor-General who bears the title of \enquote{High Commissioner});
governor, administrator (circle or subdivision commander — the circle sometimes has a few subdivisions, placed under the authority of a junior administrator reporting to the circle commander).
@ -4976,7 +4976,7 @@ To carry out these tasks, the administrator needs indigenous auxiliaries; it is
These leaders sometimes come from the old pre-colonial dynasties; sometimes it is a parvenu, a former gunman, sometimes even a former boy or cook of a governor whom he wanted to reward.
The head of the canton, let alone the village chiefs who are subordinate to him, enjoys no legitimacy, no stability:
\enquote{The head of the canton,} writes Governor-General Van Vollenhoven in a circular, \enquote{even if he is the descendant of the king with whom we have dealt, has no power of his own; appointed by us, after a choice in principle discretionary, it is only our instrument.} (167).
\enquote{The head of the canton}, writes Governor-General Van Vollenhoven in a circular, \enquote{even if he is the descendant of the king with whom we have dealt, has no power of his own; appointed by us, after a choice in principle discretionary, it is only our instrument.} (167).
At any time, if he does not fulfill his obligations in the desired way, the leader can be dismissed, imprisoned.
@ -5033,7 +5033,7 @@ Schools? They were designed to provide the colonization with the auxiliary staff
These latter functions were the highest to which an \enquote{native} could claim but always in a subordinate position compared to French teachers and doctors.
Their diplomas, in fact, were local, and gave access only to the corresponding local administrative functions.
They were not valid in France, and the absence of courses leading to French diplomas (brevet supérieur and baccalaureate) precluded them from being able to access higher education.
There was, in each colony (and in Brazzaville for the A.E.F.) an upper primary school; the brightest pupils entered the \enquote{École normale William Ponty}, which trained \enquote{indigenous} teachers and doctors.
There was, in each colony (and in Brazzaville for the A.E.F.) an upper primary school; the brightest pupils entered the \enquote{École normale William Ponty}, which trained \enquote{indigenous} teachers and doctors.
It was only in 1946 that some Ponty graduates were admitted to the Dakar High school, to prepare both parts of the baccalaureate in order to be able to do higher education in France.
Africans, who, thanks to special circumstances, had been able to pursue higher education in France, such as Lamine Gueye, a lawyer, or Léopold Sédar Senghor, an associate in grammar, were counted on the fingers of one hand.
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